extended family: Brihatkutumba or mahakutumba.

One or more joint families plus their broader associations and affiliations. Unlike the joint family, whose members live in close proximity, the extended family is geographically widespread. The extended family is headed by the patriarch, called brihatkutumba pramukha (or mukhya), recognized as the leader by each joint family. He, in turn is under the guidance of the kulaguru, or family preceptor.

It includes the following, in order of their precedence: priests of one's faith; elder men and women of the community; in-laws of married daughters; married daughters, granddaughters, great-granddaughters, and the spouses and children of these married girls; members of the staff and their families and those closely associated with the joint family business or home; maternal greatgrandparents and grandparents, parents, uncles and their spouses, aunts and their spouses, children and grandchildren of these families; very close friends and their children; members of the community at large.

See: grihastha, grihastha dharma, joint family.

(See also: Extended family , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

meritorious: Having merit, deserving of praise or reward.

See: punya.

(See also: Meritorious , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

shad darshana: (Sanskrit) "Six views or insights; six philosophies."

Among the hundreds of Hindu darshanas known through history are six classical philosophical systems: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

Each was tersely formulated in sutra form by its "founder," and elaborated in extensive commentaries by other writers. They are understood as varied attempts at describing Truth and the path to it. Elements of each form part of the Hindu fabric today.

-       Nyaya: "System, rule; logic." A system of logical realism, founded sometime around 300 bce by Gautama, known for its systems of logic and epistemology and concerned with the means of acquiring right knowledge. Its tools of enquiry and rules for argumentation were adopted by all schools of Hinduism.

-       Vaisheshika: "Distinctionism." From "vishesha," differences. Philosophy founded by Kanada (ca 300 bce) teaching that liberation is to be attained through understanding the nature of existence, which is classified in nine basic realities (dravyas): earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind. Nyaya and Vaisheshika are viewed as a complementary pair, with Nyaya emphasizing logic, and Vaisheshika analyzing the nature of the world.

-       Sankhya: "Enumeration, reckoning." A philosophy founded by the sage Kapila (ca 500 bce), author of the Sankhya Sutras. Sankhya is primarily concerned with "categories of existence," tattvas, which it understands as 25 in number. The first two are the unmanifest purusha and the manifest primal nature, prakriti - the male-female polarity, viewed as the foundation of all existence. Prakriti, out of which all things evolve, is the unity of the three gunas: sattva, rajas and tamas. Sankhya and Yoga are considered an inseparable pair whose principles permeate all of Hinduism.

-       See: prakriti, purusha.

-       Yoga: "Yoking; joining." Ancient tradition of philosophy and practice codified by Patanjali (ca 200 bce) in the Yoga Sutras. It is also known as raja yoga, "king of yogas," or ashtanga yoga, "eight-limbed yoga." Its object is to achieve, at will, the cessation of all fluctuations of consciousness, and the attainment of Self Realization. Yoga is wholly dedicated to putting the high philosophy of Hinduism into practice, to achieve personal transformation through transcendental experience, samadhi.

-       See: yoga.

-       Mimamsa: "Inquiry" (or Purva, "early," Mimamsa). Founded by Jaimini (ca 200 bce), author of the Mimamsa Sutras, who taught the correct performance of Vedic rites as the means to salvation.

-       Vedanta (or Uttara "later" Mimamsa): "End (or culmination) of the Vedas." For Vedanta, the main basis is the Upanishads and Aranyakas (the "end," anta, of the Vedas), rather than the hymns and ritual portions of the Vedas. The teaching of Vedanta is that there is one Absolute Reality, Brahman. Man is one with Brahman, and the object of life is to realize that truth through right knowledge, intuition and personal experience. The Vedanta Sutras (or Brahma Sutras) were composed by Rishi Badarayana (ca 400 bce).

See: Brahma Sutra, padartha, tattva, Vedanta, yoga.

(See also: Shad darshana , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

milieu: Environment; social or cultural setting.

(See also: Milieu , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

ethics: The code or system of morals of a nation, people, religion, etc.

See: dharma, pancha nitya karmas, punya, purity-impurity.

(See also: Ethics , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Radhakrishnan, Dr. S.: (Sanskrit) (1888-1975) A President of India (1962 to 1967), an outstanding philosopher, prolific writer, compelling speaker and effective spokesman of Hinduism. Along with Vivekananda, Tagore, Aurobindo and others, he helped bring about the current Hindu revival. He made Hinduism better known and appreciated at home and abroad, especially in the intellectual world. He was a foremost proponent of panentheism.

See: Vedanta.

(See also: Dr S Radhakrishnan , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

dosha: (Sanskrit) "Bodily humor; individual constitution."

Three bodily humors, which according to ayurveda regulate the body, govern its proper functioning and determine its unique constitution. These are

• vata, the air humor;
• pitta, the fire humor; and
• kapha, the water humor.

Vata has its seat in the intestinal area, pitta in the stomach, and kapha in the lung area. They govern the creation, preservation and dissolution of bodily tissue. Vata humor is metabolic, nerve energy. Pitta is the catabolic, fire energy. Kapha is the anabolic, nutritive energy.

The three doshas (tridosha) also give rise to the various emotions and correspond to the three gunas, "qualities:" sattva (quiescence- vata), rajas (activity- pitta) and tamas (inertia- kapha).

See: ayurveda, kapha, pitta, vata.

(See also: Dosha , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

shruti: (Sanskrit) "That which is heard."

Hinduism's revealed scriptures, of supreme theological authority and spiritual value. They are timeless teachings transmitted to rishis, or seers, directly by God thousands of years ago. Shruti is thus said to be apaurusheya, "impersonal," or rather "suprahuman."

Shruti consists essentially of the Vedas and the Agamas, preserved initially through oral tradition and eventually written down in Sanskrit. Among the many sacred books of the Hindus, these two bodies of knowledge are held in the highest esteem. For countless centuries shruti has been the basis of philosophical discussion, study and commentary, and this attention has given rise to countless schools of thought. It is also the subject of deep study and meditation, to realize the wisdom of the ancients within oneself.

Most mantras are drawn from shruti, used for rites of worship, both public and domestic, as well as personal prayer and japa. It is a remarkable tribute to Hindu culture that so much of shruti was preserved for thousands of years without alteration by means of oral instruction from guru to shishya, generation after generation. In the Veda tradition this was accomplished by requiring the student to learn each verse in eleven different ways, including backwards. Traditionally shruti is not read, but chanted according to extremely precise rules of grammar, pitch, intonation and rhythm. This brings forth its greatest power. In the sacred language of shruti, word and meaning are so closely aligned that hearing these holy scriptures properly chanted is magical in its effect upon the soul of the listener.

See: Agamas, smriti, Vedas.

(See also: Shruti , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Jainism: (Jaina) (Sanskrit) An ancient non-Vedic religion of India made prominent by the teachings of Mahavira ("Great Hero"), ca 500 bce. The Jain Agamas teach reverence for all life, vegetarianism and strict renunciation for ascetics.

Jains focus great emphasis on the fact that all souls may attain liberation, each by his own effort. Their great historic saints, called Tirthankaras ("Ford-Crossers"), are objects of worship, of whom Mahavira was the 24th and last. Jains number about six million today, living mostly in India.

See: Mahavira.

(See also: Jainism , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Veda: (Sanskrit) "Wisdom." Sagely revelations which

comprise Hinduism's most authoritative scripture. They, along with the Agamas, are shruti, "that which is heard."

The Vedas are a body of dozens of holy texts known

collectively as the Veda, or as the four Vedas: Rig, Yajur,

Sama and Atharva. In all they include over 100,000

verses, as well as additional prose. The knowledge

imparted by the Vedas is highly mystical or

superconscious rather than intellectual. Each Veda has

four sections: Samhitas (hymn collections), Brahmanas

(priestly manuals), Aranyakas (forest treatises) and

Upanishads (enlightened discourses). The Samhitas and

Brahmanas (together known as the karmakanda, "ritual

section") detail a transcendent-immanent Supreme-Being

cosmology and a system of worship through fire ceremony

and chanting to establish communication with the Gods.

The Aranyakas and Upanishads (the jnanakanda,

"knowledge section") outline the soul's evolutionary

journey, providing yogic-philosophic training and

propounding a lofty, nondual realization as the destiny of

all souls. The oldest portions of the Vedas are thought to

date back as far as 6,000 bce, written down in Sanskrit in

the last few millennia, making them the world's most

ancient scriptures.

See: Aranyaka, Brahmana, shruti,

Upanishad, Vedanga.

(See also: Veda , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Murugan: (Tamil) "Beautiful one," a favorite name of Karttikeya among the Tamils of South India, Sri Lanka and elsewhere.

See: Karttikeya.

(See also: Murugan , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

purgatory: A state or place of temporary punishment or expiation. A hellish condition that is not eternal. Purgatory is actually more fitting than the term hell as an equivalent for the Sanskrit Naraka.

See: hell, loka, Naraka.

(See also: Purgatory , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

dhoti: (Sanskrit) (Hindi) A long, unstitched cloth wound about the lower part of the body, and sometimes passed between the legs and tucked into the waist. A traditional Hindu apparel for men.

See: veshti.

(See also: Dhoti , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Siva Samhita: (Sanskrit) Text from the Gorakshanatha school of Saivism, ca 1700. In 212 sutras it discusses anatomy, asanas, energy, breathing and philosophy. It is available in various languages and widely studied as a valuable overview of yoga practice.

(See also: Siva Samhita , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

fast: Abstaining from all or certain foods, as in observance of a vow or holy day.

Hindus fast in various ways.

• A simple fast may consist of merely avoiding certain foods for a day or more, such as when vegetarians avoid tamasic or rajasic foods or when nonvegetarians abstain from fish, fowl and meats.
• A moderate fast would involve avoiding heavier foods, or taking only juices, teas and other liquids. Such fasts are sometimes observed only during the day, and a normal meal is permitted after sunset.
• Serious fasting, which is done under supervision, involves taking only water for a number of days and requires a cessation of most external activities.

(See also: Fast , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Punjab: (Sanskrit) The area of ancient India between the Indus and Sutlej, below Kashmir. It is now divided between India and Pakistan. It was a center of Saivism until Muslim invasions. The modern Indian state is 19,445 square miles in area with a population of 18 million.

(See also: Punjab , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

prarabdha karma: (Sanskrit) "Action that has been unleashed or aroused."

See: karma.

(See also: Prarabdha karma , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Sthapatyaveda: (Sanskrit) "Science of architecture."

A class of writings on architecture, sometimes classed as one of the Upavedas. It embodies such works as the Manasara, the Vastu Shastras and the architectural Shilpa Shastra.

See: Upaveda.

(See also: Sthapatyaveda , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

sanchita karma: (Sanskrit) "Accumulated action."

The accumulated consequence of an individual's actions in this and past lives.

See: karma.

(See also: Sanchita karma: , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

niyati: (Sanskrit) "Necessity, restriction; the fixed order of things, destiny."

A synonym for karma, niyati is the eighth tattva. It is part of the soul's five-fold "sheath," pancha kanchuka (or vijnanamaya kosha), along with kala (time), kala (creativity), vidya (knowing) and raga (attachment, desire). The soul thus encased is called purusha.

See: karma, tattva.

(See also: Niyati , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

trance: In general, a condition of altered consciousness, accompanied by a lack of awareness to physical surroundings, neither a state of wakefulness nor sleep. In a religious sense it is a state of intense concentration, introspection or

meditation. In such a state, called samadhi, body consciousness is completely lost as the energies are drawn up the spine into the sahasrara chakra at the crown of the head. Great prophets have gone into trance and spoken out predictions of the future and in their waking state later had no memory of what they had said.

 In spiritualism, trance describes the phenomenon in which an individual leaves the physical body, and a disincarnate being enters or takes control of the body, often giving forth verbal messages to others in attendance, as in a seance. Trance can be either voluntary or involuntary.

See: mediumship, samadhi.

(See also: Trance , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary

Goddess: Female representation or manifestation of Divinity; Shakti or Devi.

Goddess can refer to a female perception or depiction of a causal-plane being (Mahadeva) in its natural state, which is genderless, or it can refer to an astral-plane being residing in a female astral body.

To show the Divine's transcendence of sexuality, sometimes God is shown as having qualities of both sexes, e.g., Ardhanarishvara, "Half-woman God;" or Lord Nataraja, who wears a feminine earring in one ear and a masculine one in the other.

(See also: Goddess , Hinduism, Body Mind and Soul)

For more dictionary entries, see » What Is Dictionary