value

Cognitive dissonance is a condition first proposed by the psychologist Leon Festinger in 1956, relating to his hypothesis of cognitive consistency. Cognitive dissonance is a state of opposition between cognitions. For the purpose of cognitive dissonance theory, cognitions are defined as being an any element of knowlege attitude, emotion, belief or value, as well as a goal, plan, or an interest. In brief, the theory of cognitive dissonance holds that contradicting cognitions serve as a driving force that compels the human mind t ...

Including:

• Cognitive dissonance - Origins and the experiment
• Cognitive dissonance - Conflicting cognitions: cognitive dissonance
• Cognitive dissonance - Two kinds of dissonance
• Cognitive dissonance - Further propositions by Festinger

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The last objection is also sometimes interpreted as the paradox of value, which was observed by classical economists. Adam Smith described what is now called the Diamond–Water Paradox: diamonds command a higher price than water, yet water is essential for life, while diamonds are merely ornamentation. One solution offered to this paradox is through the theory of marginal utility proposed by Carl Menger, the fa ...

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Price, Price - Conventional definition, Price - Marxian price theory, Price - Austrian theory

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Economic value exists necessarily, according to Marx, because human beings as social and moral beings must co-operatively produce their means of life to survive, and in so doing they are subject to relations of production. This involves three kinds of relationships which are objectively and empirically verifiable, and often formalised in law: between people (social relations). between people and their products (technical relations). between products themselves (with or without trading prices; these a ...

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Law of value, Law of value - Economic value as such, Law of value - Is it an equilibrium theory?, Law of value - Factors counteracting the law of value, Law of value - Law of value in capitalism, Law of value - Smith's hidden hand, Law of value - Modification of the law of value in the world market, Law of value - A comment by Marx on the law of value, Law of value - A comment by Frederick Engels on the law of value, Law of value - The law of value in non-capitalist societies, Law of value - Post-modern thinking about the topic, Law of value - Criticism, Law of value - A Californian perspective: Jim Devine on the LoV, Law of value - Steve Keen and the machine

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The main factors counteracting the operation of the law of value, as a law of economic exchange, are: structural unequal exchange - alternative or competing sources of supply or demand are absent or blocked, distorting trading ratios in favour of those in a stronger market (or bargaining) position. In that case, the true value or cost of products may deviate greatly from actual selling prices. other restrictions on trade and what people may do with resources (legal, technical, protectionismetc.). ...

See also:

Law of value, Law of value - Economic value as such, Law of value - Is it an equilibrium theory?, Law of value - Factors counteracting the law of value, Law of value - Law of value in capitalism, Law of value - Smith's hidden hand, Law of value - Modification of the law of value in the world market, Law of value - A comment by Marx on the law of value, Law of value - A comment by Frederick Engels on the law of value, Law of value - The law of value in non-capitalist societies, Law of value - Post-modern thinking about the topic, Law of value - Criticism, Law of value - A Californian perspective: Jim Devine on the LoV, Law of value - Steve Keen and the machine

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Some authors have interpreted Marx's law of value as a theory of market equilibrium. However, Marx offered no theory of market equilibrium, only a dynamic theory of economic reproduction. In reality, markets were rarely in equilibrium anyway (that was more a hypothesis used by economists), and what explained the market behaviour of individuals and groups was precisely the imbalances between supply and demand. Under capitalist conditions, balancing output and market demand depended on capital accumulation occurring. A capitalist ...

See also:

Law of value, Law of value - Economic value as such, Law of value - Is it an equilibrium theory?, Law of value - Factors counteracting the law of value, Law of value - Law of value in capitalism, Law of value - Smith's hidden hand, Law of value - Modification of the law of value in the world market, Law of value - A comment by Marx on the law of value, Law of value - A comment by Frederick Engels on the law of value, Law of value - The law of value in non-capitalist societies, Law of value - Post-modern thinking about the topic, Law of value - Criticism, Law of value - A Californian perspective: Jim Devine on the LoV, Law of value - Steve Keen and the machine

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Kindness is the act or the state of charitable behaviour to other people. It is considered to be one of the Knightly Virtues, and is a recognized value in many cultures and religions (see ethics in religion). It is considered to be one of the seven virtues, specifically the one of the Seven Contrary Virtues (direct opposites of the seven deadly sins) that is the direct opposite to envy

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Commerce is the trading of something of value between two entities. That "something" may be goods, services, information, money, or anything else the two entities consider to have value. Commerce is the central mechanism from which capitalism and all other economic systems are derived. The process of transforming something into a commercial activity is called commercialization. Commerce - History of Commerce. Commerce has its origins from the very start of communication in prehistoric times. Trading ...

Including:

• Commerce - History of Commerce
• Commerce - Foreign Commerce
• Commerce - Notes

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Strategic planning consists of the process of developing strategies to reach a defined objective. As we label a piece of planning "strategic" we expect it to operate on the grand scale and to take in "the big picture" (in contradistinction to "tactical" planning, which by definition has to focus more on the tactics of individual detailed activities). "Long range" planning typically projects current activities and programs into a revised view of the external world, thereby describing results that will most likely occur (whether the pla ...

Including:

• Strategic planning - Methodologies
• Strategic planning - Goals objectives and targets
• Strategic planning - Mission statements and vision statements
• Strategic planning - Why strategic plans fail

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In common usage, the word capitalism means an economic system in which all or most of the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit, and the investment of capital is privately determined; and in which production, distribution, and prices of goods, services, and labor are determined mainly through the influence of the forces of supply and demand in the operation of a free market . Capitalism has also been referred by various sources by the terms free market economy, free enterprise system,e ...

Including:

• Capitalism - Etymology
• Capitalism - Capitalist theory
• Capitalism - Contrasts with capitalism
• Capitalism - History of capitalism
• Capitalism - Capitalism as a theory
• Capitalism - Capitalism as a practice
• Capitalism - Characteristics of capitalist economies
• Capitalism - Private ownership of the means of production
• Capitalism - Free market
• Capitalism - Profit
• Capitalism - Self interest
• Capitalism - Private enterprise
• Capitalism - Economic growth
• Capitalism - Economic mobility
• Capitalism - Self-organization
• Capitalism - Which economies are capitalist?
• Capitalism - Criticisms of capitalism
• Capitalism - Unequal distribution of wealth and income
• Capitalism - Employment/unemployment
• Capitalism - Marxist critique of capitalism
• Capitalism - Capitalism in decline or on the rise?
• Capitalism - Sustainability
• Capitalism - Human rights violations imperialism and democracy
• Capitalism - Other approaches
• Capitalism - Capitalism in political ideologies
• Capitalism - Indices of economic freedom
• Capitalism - Notes

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Loss has several meanings including: Loss in electronics is the ratio of the system output to system input In electronics, loss is the ratio of system output to system input. Calculation and units used are the same as with Gain, except that the output is less than the input. Loss is often expressed as a negative gain (if expressed in dB) or as a gain of less than one. For example: if input=100 mW and output=5 mW then loss = 5/100 = 0.05 = −1.3 B (bel) or −

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In semiotics, the concept of a code is of fundamental importance. Saussure (1857-1913) emphasised that signs only acquire meaning and value when they are interpreted in relation to each other. He believed that the relationship between the signifier and the signified was arbitrary. Hence, interpreting signs requires familiarity with the sets of conventions or codes currently in use to communicate meaning. Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) elaborated the idea that the production and interpretation of texts depends on the existence of codes or ...

Including:

• Code semiotics - Discussion

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Coin collecting is the hobby of collecting coins. Coin collecting - History. While hoarding coins due to their value goes back to the beginning of coinage, collecting them as art pieces was a later development. Known as the "Hobby of Kings", modern coin collecting is generally believed to have begun in the fourteenth century with Petrarch. Notes of Roman emperors having coin collections are also known, but it remains somewhat unclear whether these coins were studied, considered curiosities or were merely ho ...

Including:

• Coin collecting - History
• Coin collecting - Coin collecting specialties
• Coin collecting - Casual collector
• Coin collecting - Curious collector
• Coin collecting - Advanced coin collectors
• Coin collecting - Coin collecting trivia

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States provide different levels of protection under their homestead exemption laws. Some only protect property up to a certain value, and if a home is worth more than that, the creditor can still force the sale of that home, but the owner can keep a certain amount of the proceeds of the sale. Texas, Florida, and Oklahoma have some of the broadest homestead protections in the U.S., in terms of the value of property that can be protected. Texas' homestead exemption has no limit on dollar value of the homestead with a 10 acres limit insi ...

See also:

Homestead exemption, Homestead exemption - Features, Homestead exemption - Immunity from forced sale, Homestead exemption - Property tax exemption, Homestead exemption - Examples

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Human - Anatomy and physiology. Main articles: Human anatomy, and Human physical appearance, and Human height, See also:

Human, Human - Terminology, Human - Biology, Human - Anatomy and physiology, Human - Life cycle, Human - Genetics, Human - Race and ethnicity, Human - Habitat, Human - Food and drink, Human - Population, Human - Evolution, Human - Intelligence, Human - Culture, Human - Origins, Human - Emotion and sexuality, Human - Language, Human - Music, Human - Government politics and the state, Human - Trade and economics, Human - War, Human - Artifacts science and technology, Human - Body image, Human - Mind, Human - Psychology and human ethology, Human - Philosophy, Human - Motivation, Human - Self-reflection and humanism, Human - Spirit

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The term analytic philosophy is slightly ambiguous and generally has three meanings: doctrine, method, and tradition. The doctrines most often called "analytic philosophy" are logical positivism and logical atomism; more loosely, the term can refer to ordinary language philosophy, common sense philosophy, or some amalgam of the above. This usage made some sense until the 1950s, when most prominent "analytic" philosophers were commonly engaged in a few related research programmes and committed to similar basic these ...

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Analytic philosophy, Analytic philosophy - The term analytic philosophy, Analytic philosophy - Relation to continental philosophy, Analytic philosophy - Formalism and natural languages, Analytic philosophy - Formalism, Analytic philosophy - Logical atomism, Analytic philosophy - The Tractatus, Analytic philosophy - Natural language semantics, Analytic philosophy - Natural language, Analytic philosophy - Reaction against idealism, Analytic philosophy - Language as use, Analytic philosophy - Logical positivism and logical empiricism, Analytic philosophy - Philosophy of mind cognitive science, Analytic philosophy - Ethics in analytic philosophy, Analytic philosophy - Political philosophy, Analytic philosophy - Analytical Marxism, Analytic philosophy - Communitarianism

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Economists view many environmental problems as arising from the negative externalities of industrial production and other activities. An industry may receive the full benefit of producing a pollutant but, in general, they do not pay the full social costs of polluting the environment. This leads to a situation analogous to the tragedy of the commons where the industry keeps all the benefits of an activity itself but shares the costs with all the other members of society. In such a situation it is rational to pollute. As the elementary economi ...

See also:

Free-market environmentalism, Free-market environmentalism - Economics of environmental destruction, Free-market environmentalism - Property rights, Free-market environmentalism - Regulator capture, Free-market environmentalism - Taxation, Free-market environmentalism - Nature preserves, Free-market environmentalism - Objections, Free-market environmentalism - Free-market environmentalists, Free-market environmentalism - Bibliography

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The practice can be illustrated with an example. An investor believes that the company FOO is going to do well this month, and wishes to buy some shares of stock so as to profit from their rise in value. FOO is, however, part of the widgets industry, a sector whose share prices are highly volatile.. Our investor is interested in the company itself, not the vagaries of the industry, and so seeks to hedge out the risk by selling short an equal amount of the shares of FOO's direct competitor, BAR. On day one, our investor's portfolio looks like this: Long 1000 shares of FOO at 1 USD each < ...

See also:

Hedge finance, Hedge finance - Example hedge, Hedge finance - Types of hedging

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New trends in capital accumulation include: financialisation (the extraordinarily strong growth of the global financial markets. This is trade in financial claims to current and future income. As a corollary, the proportion of national income which consists of interest income and rentier income increases. Modern information technology makes it possible to engage in very complex investment projects and shift funds extremely quickly from one placement to another in space and time. This increases the rotation sp ...

See also:

Capital accumulation, Capital accumulation - Harrod-Domar model, Capital accumulation - Psychology sociology and ethics of capital accumulation, Capital accumulation - Marxian concept of capital accumulation, Capital accumulation - The rate and measurement of accumulation, Capital accumulation - The origin of capital accumulation in trade, Capital accumulation - The circuit of capital accumulation from production, Capital accumulation - Simple and expanded reproduction, Capital accumulation - Different forms of capital accumulation, Capital accumulation - Capital accumulation as social relation, Capital accumulation - Regime of accumulation, Capital accumulation - Environmental criticism of capital accumulation, Capital accumulation - Capital accumulation and risk, Capital accumulation - Capital accumulation and military wars, Capital accumulation - New developments in capital accumulation, Capital accumulation - A few references to works of theory

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There is a lot of variation in the types of caches participants seek. Some geocaches are easy enough to be called "drive-bys" in the U.S.; and "Park 'n' Grabs", "PNG's" or "cache and dash" in the U.K. (these terms are sometimes used in the U.S. as well). Others are very difficult: under water, many staged multi-caches, challenging cryptography, 50 feet up a tree, on high mountain peaks, on the Antarc ...

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Geocaching, Geocaching - History, Geocaching - Geocaches, Geocaching - Variations, Geocaching - Geocaching's status as a sport, Geocaching - Listing competition

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A set of broad characteristics are generally agreed on by both advocates and critics of capitalism. These are a private sector, private property, free enterprise, profit, unequal distribution of wealth, competition, self-organization (or catallaxy), the existence of markets (including the labor market) and the pursuit of self-interest. An economy with a large amount of intervention - which may include state ownership of some of the means of production - in combination with some free market characteristics is sometimes referred ...

See also:

Capitalism, Capitalism - Etymology, Capitalism - Capitalist theory, Capitalism - Contrasts with capitalism, Capitalism - History of capitalism, Capitalism - Capitalism as a theory, Capitalism - Capitalism as a practice, Capitalism - Characteristics of capitalist economies, Capitalism - Private ownership of the means of production, Capitalism - Free market, Capitalism - Profit, Capitalism - Self interest, Capitalism - Private enterprise, Capitalism - Economic growth, Capitalism - Economic mobility, Capitalism - Self-organization, Capitalism - Which economies are capitalist?, Capitalism - Criticisms of capitalism, Capitalism - Unequal distribution of wealth and income, Capitalism - Employment/unemployment, Capitalism - Marxist critique of capitalism, Capitalism - Capitalism in decline or on the rise?, Capitalism - Sustainability, Capitalism - Human rights violations imperialism and democracy, Capitalism - Other approaches, Capitalism - Capitalism in political ideologies, Capitalism - Indices of economic freedom, Capitalism - Notes

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Scrip is now issued in the form of gift certificates, or gift cards. The two are essentially the same, except that the cards automate the checkout and accounting processes. Cards usually have a barcode or magnetic strip, which can be processed through a standard electronic credit card machine. Cards do not have any value until they are sold, at which time the cashier enters the amount which the customer wishes to put on the card. This number is rarely stored on the card, but is instead noted in the store's database. The ...

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Scrip, Scrip - History, Scrip - Modern use, Scrip - Tax exemption, Scrip - Criticism, Scrip - Collections and study

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Broadly speaking, economics is a social science, and its area of study is human activity involved in meeting needs and wants. However, beyond this there are a range of definitions, past and present which have been applied, first to the term political economy and then to the modern term economics. John Maynard Keynes once remarked that "Economics is the science of thinking." Broadly the history of the study moved from the study of "wealth" to "welfare" to the idea studying trade offs. < ...

See also:

Economics, Economics - Definitions of economics, Economics - Wealth definition, Economics - Welfare definition, Economics - Scarcity definition, Economics - Areas of study in economics, Economics - Economic assumptions, Economics - Supply and demand, Economics - Price, Economics - Scarcity, Economics - Marginalism, Economics - Value, Economics - Economic language and reasoning, Economics - Development of economic thought, Economics - Schools of economic thought, Economics - Modern 'mainstream' economics, Economics - Neoclassical economics, Economics - Post-Keynesian economists, Economics - Other alternatives, Economics - Economics and other disciplines

Read more here: » Economics: Encyclopedia II - Economics - Definitions of economics