validity

Ad hominem is fallacious when applied to deduction, and not the evidence (or premise) of an argument. Evidence may be doubted or rejected based on the source for reasons of credibility, but to doubt or reject a deduction based on the source is the ad hominem fallacy. Premises discrediting the person can exist in valid arguments, when the person being criticized is the sole source for a piece of evidence used in one of his arguments. A committed perjury when he said Q We should not accept testimony for which perjury was committed therefore, A 's testimony for Q ...

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Ad hominem, Ad hominem - Ad hominem as logical fallacy, Ad hominem - Usage, Ad hominem - Validity, Ad hominem - Subtypes, Ad hominem - Ad hominem abusive, Ad hominem - Ad hominem circumstantial, Ad hominem - Ad hominem tu quoque, Ad hominem - Taxonomy

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Carlos Santiago Nino (1943-1993) was an Argentine moral, legal and political philosopher. Nino studied law at the University of Buenos Aires and at Oxford, where he received his Ph.D. in 1977 with a thesis directed by John Finnis and Tony Honoré. Nino began his academic activity in the early 1970s, concentrating on some traditional issues in jurisprudence, such as the concept of a legal system, the interpretation of the law, the debate between legal positivism and natural law, and the concept of validity (see ...

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Book of Mormon - Latter Day Saint views. The dominant and widely accepted view among Latter Day Saints is that the Book of Mormon is a true account of the people whose history it documents. Since the time of its publication, it has been common among Latter Day Saints to view and explain the Book of Mormon as a comprehensive history of all Native Americans (Mauss 2004); this understanding of the Book of Mormon is referred to as the "hemispheric model." However, belief in the hemispheric model is an a ...

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Book of Mormon, Book of Mormon - Content, Book of Mormon - Title Page, Book of Mormon - Organization, Book of Mormon - Investigation of the book, Book of Mormon - Brief narrative summary, Book of Mormon - The book's major themes, Book of Mormon - Origin of the Book of Mormon, Book of Mormon - Authorship, Book of Mormon - Joseph Smith as Translator, Book of Mormon - Alternative explanations, Book of Mormon - Views of historicity, Book of Mormon - Latter Day Saint views, Book of Mormon - Critics' views, Book of Mormon - Role of the Book of Mormon in Mormonism, Book of Mormon - Differences between the Book of Mormon and Latter-day Saint doctrine, Book of Mormon - Book of Mormon Editions

Read more here: » Book of Mormon: Encyclopedia II - Book of Mormon - Views of historicity

Arguments as discussed in the preceding paragraphs are static, such as one might find in a textbook or research article. They serve as a published record of justification for an assertion. Arguments can also be interactive, in which the proposer and the interlocutor have a more symmetrical relationship. The premises are discussed, as well the validity of the intermediate inferences. For example, consider the following exchange, illustrated by the No true Scotsman fallacy: Argument: "No Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge." ...

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Logical argument, Logical argument - Overview, Logical argument - Argument validity, Logical argument - The mathematical paradigm, Logical argument - Theories of arguments, Logical argument - Argumentative dialogue, Logical argument - Other theories

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Good argument, as used by philosophers and many others, means simply a sound or cogent argument. If one has offered a sound or cogent argument in defense of one's conclusion, then one has stated a true view, or at least a probably true view. The premises of one's argument support, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, justify one's belief in the conclusion. A good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true. If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the c ...

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Cogency, Cogency - Probable, Cogency - Good argument

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Race - Origins of modern humans. see also single-origin hypothesis, multiregional hypothesis. Any biological model for race must account for the development of racial differences during human evolution. For much of the 20th century, however, anthropologists relied on an incomplete fossil record for reconstructing human evolution. Their models seldom provided a firm basis for drawing inferences about the origin of races. Modern research in molecular biology, however, has provided evolutio ...

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Race, Race - Historical origins of race, Race - History of the term, Race - History of race research, Race - 20th- and 21st-century debates over race, Race - Scale of race research, Race - Summary of different definitions of race, Race - The origins patterns and physical manifestations of human genetic variation, Race - Origins of modern humans, Race - Distribution of variation, Race - Substructure in the human population, Race - Physical variation in humans, Race - Social interpretation of physical variation, Race - Incongruities of racial classifications, Race - Ethnicity as a way of categorizing people, Race - Ancestry as a way of categorizing people, Race - Current disagreement across disciplines, Race - Case studies in the social construction of race, Race - Race in the United States, Race - Race in Brazil, Race - Practical uses of race, Race - Race in politics and ethics, Race - Race and intelligence, Race - Race in biomedicine, Race - Race in law enforcement, Race - Footnotes

Read more here: » Race: Encyclopedia II - Race - The origins patterns and physical manifestations of human genetic variation

The role of genes and environment (nature vs. nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin et al. (2001, 2003). The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called heritability. Heritability scores range from 0 to 1, and can be interpreted as the percentage of variation (e.g. in IQ) that is due to variation in genes. Twins studies and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait. Until recently heritability was mostly studied in childre ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - Online tests, Intelligence quotient - Distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - Sex and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ

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The validity of the APS is unquestioned. Very few people, if any, would argue that Chomsky's conclusion doesn't follow from his premises. Thus, anyone who accepts the first four propositions must accept the conclusion. Many linguists accept all of the premises and consider there to be quite a bit of evidence for them: First premise  Chomsky presented the original evidence for this proposition in his critique of B. F. Skinner's theories of language. Essentially, Chomsky argued that since sentences such as "If A, the ...

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Argument from poverty of the stimulus, Argument from poverty of the stimulus - Summary of the argument, Argument from poverty of the stimulus - Evidence for the argument, Argument from poverty of the stimulus - Critiques of the argument

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An early reference to non-business performance management occurs in Sun Tzu's The Art of War. Sun Tzu claims that to succeed in war, one should have full knowledge of one's own strengths and weaknesses and full knowledge of one's enemy's strengths and weaknesses. Lack of either one might result in defeat. A certain school of thought draws parallels between the challenges in business and those of war, specifically: collecting data discerning patterns and meaning in the data (generating informati ...

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Business performance management, Business performance management - History, Business performance management - What is BPM?, Business performance management - Metrics / Key Performance Indicators, Business performance management - Application software types, Business performance management - Designing and implementing a business performance management programme

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In a set of rules, an inference rule could be redundant in the sense that it is admissible or derivable. A derivable rule is one whose conclusion can be derived from its premises using the other rules. An admissible rule is one whose conclusion holds whenever the premises hold. All derivable rules are admissible. To appreciate the difference, consider the following set of rules for defining the natural numbers (the judgment asserts the fact that ...

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Rule of inference, Rule of inference - Admissibility and Derivability, Rule of inference - Other Considerations

Read more here: » Rule of inference: Encyclopedia II - Rule of inference - Admissibility and Derivability

The role of genes and environment (nature vs. nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin et al. (2001, 2003). The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called heritability. Heritability scores range from 0 to 1, and can be interpreted as the percentage of variation (e.g. in IQ) that is due to variation in genes. Twins studies and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait. Until recently heritability was mostly studied in childre ...

See also:

Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Variants of focus groups include: Two-way focus group - one focus group watches another focus group and discusses the observed interactions and conclusions Dual moderator focus group - one moderator ensures the session progresses smoothly, while another ensures that all the topics are covered Dueling moderator focus group - two moderators deliberately take opposite sides on the issue under discussion Respondent moderator focus group - one or more of the respondents are asked ...

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Focus group, Focus group - Traditional focus groups, Focus group - Types of focus groups, Focus group - Online Focus Groups

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eHarmony's services are geared toward those looking for a long term relationship, which is estimated to be 20% of those using online dating services. Dr. Warren's goal is to reduce the divorce rate in America to less than 10% (it is estimated to be 40-50%). [6][7] The company boasts to be the internet's number one paid matchmaking service based upon marriages per match. It has rather strict limitations which Dr. Warren states are solely based on over 35 years of research into successful marriages. Factors "which may limit a user from ...

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EHarmony, EHarmony - Founding and Funding, EHarmony - Methodology, EHarmony - Compatibility research, EHarmony - Membership demographics, EHarmony - Membership, EHarmony - Race, EHarmony - Socio-economic, EHarmony - Religion

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Inferential techniques involve generalizing from a sample to the whole population. It also involves testing a hypothesis. A hypothesis must be stated in mathematical/statistical terms that make it possible to calculate the probability of possible samples assuming the hypothesis is correct. Then a test statistic must be chosen that will summarize the information in the sample that is relevant to the hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that is presumed true until a hypothesis test indicates otherwise. Typically it is a statement about a parameter that is a proper ...

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Quantitative marketing research, Quantitative marketing research - Scope and requirements, Quantitative marketing research - Typical General procedure, Quantitative marketing research - Descriptive techniques, Quantitative marketing research - Inferential techniques, Quantitative marketing research - Types of hypothesis tests, Quantitative marketing research - Reliability and validity, Quantitative marketing research - Types of errors, Quantitative marketing research - List of related topics

Read more here: » Quantitative marketing research: Encyclopedia II - Quantitative marketing research - Inferential techniques

Race - Origins of modern humans. see also single-origin hypothesis, multiregional hypothesis. Any biological model for race must account for the development of racial differences during human evolution. For much of the 20th century, however, anthropologists relied on an incomplete fossil record for reconstructing human evolution. Their models seldom provided a firm basis for drawing inferences about the origin of races. Modern research in molecular biology, however, has provided evolutio ...

See also:

Race, Race - Historical origins of race, Race - History of the term, Race - History of race research, Race - 20th- and 21st-century debates over race, Race - Summary of different definitions of race, Race - The origins patterns and physical manifestations of human genetic variation, Race - Origins of modern humans, Race - Distribution of variation, Race - Substructure in the human population, Race - Physical variation in humans, Race - Social interpretation of physical variation, Race - Incongruities of racial classifications, Race - Ethnicity as a way of categorizing people, Race - Ancestry as a way of categorizing people, Race - Current disagreement across disciplines, Race - Case studies in the social construction of race, Race - Race in the United States, Race - Race in Brazil, Race - Practical uses of race, Race - Race in politics and ethics, Race - Race and intelligence, Race - Race in biomedicine, Race - Race in law enforcement, Race - Footnotes

Read more here: » Race: Encyclopedia II - Race - The origins patterns and physical manifestations of human genetic variation

Certification is often used in the professions of software engineering and information technology; however, it is a contentious issue. Some see it as a tool to improve professional practice; others point out that very few traditional engineers bother with any form of certification. The most successful certification programs are oriented toward specific technologies, and are managed by the vendors of these technologies. These certification programs are tailored to the institutions that would employ people who use these technologies.

Professional certification, Professional certification - Certification in the computer industry, Professional certification - Information Systems Security Certification, Professional certification - Criticisms, Professional certification - Certifications in the legal profession, Professional certification - Certifications in business, Professional certification - Other miscellaneous certification programs

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The questions are usually structured and standardized. The structure is intended to reduce bias (see questionnaire construction). For example, questions should be ordered in such a way that a question does not influence the response to subsequent questions. Surveys are standardized to ensure reliability, generalizability, and validity (see quantitative marketing research). Every respondent should be presented ...

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Statistical survey, Statistical survey - Structure and standardization, Statistical survey - Advantages of surveys, Statistical survey - Disadvantages of surveys, Statistical survey - Advantages of self-administered questionnaires, Statistical survey - Disadvantages of self-administered surveys, Statistical survey - Advantages of researcher administered interviews, Statistical survey - Survey methods, Statistical survey - Methods used to increase response rates, Statistical survey - Graduate Degree Programs in Survey Methodology and Survey Research, Statistical survey - Doctoral and Masters Degrees, Statistical survey - Masters Degrees Only, Statistical survey - Lists of related topics

Read more here: » Statistical survey: Encyclopedia II - Statistical survey - Structure and standardization

Organizations typically gather information in order to assess the business environment, and cover fields such as marketing research, industry or market research, and competitor analysis. Competitive organizations accumulate business intelligence in order to gain sustainable competitive advantage, and may regard such intelligence as a valuable core competence in some instances. Generally, BI-collectors glean their primary information from internal business sources. Such sources help decision-makers understand how well they have perform ...

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Business intelligence, Business intelligence - BI business processes, Business intelligence - BI technology, Business intelligence - BI software types, Business intelligence - History, Business intelligence - Key performance indicators, Business intelligence - Example, Business intelligence - Designing and implementing a business intelligence programme

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There are several types of clustering methods: Non-Hierarchical clustering (also called k-means clustering) first determine a cluster center, then group all objects that are within a certain distance examples: Sequential Threshold method - first determine a cluster center, then group all objects that are within a predetermined threshold from the center - one cluster is created at a time Parallel Threshold method - simultaneously several cluster centers are determined, then ...

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Cluster analysis in marketing, Cluster analysis in marketing - In marketing cluster analysis is used for:, Cluster analysis in marketing - The basic procedure is:, Cluster analysis in marketing - Clustering procedures

Read more here: » Cluster analysis in marketing: Encyclopedia II - Cluster analysis in marketing - Clustering procedures

The slippery-slope argument occurs in the following context: A, B denote events, situations, policies, actions etc. Within this context, the proposer posits the following inferential scheme: If A occurs then the chances increase that B will occur The argument takes on one of various semantical forms: In one form, the proposer suggests that by making a move in a particular direction, we start down a "slippery slope". Having started down the metaphorical slope, it appears likely that we will con ...

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Slippery slope, Slippery slope - The slippery slope as argument, Slippery slope - Examples, Slippery slope - The slippery slope as fallacy, Slippery slope - Supporting analogies, Slippery slope - Momentum or frictional analogies, Slippery slope - Induction analogy

Read more here: » Slippery slope: Encyclopedia II - Slippery slope - The slippery slope as argument

Standardized tests are widely used in education, placement and certification. Their validity has been criticized on several grounds. Some of the criticisms are standard psychometric ones. For example, scores on tests of achievement in mathematics problem-solving are often correlated with scores on tests of language ability; this suggests that the mathematics test is actually measuring the linguistic ability required to understand the presentation of the problems rather than the mathematical ability required to solve th ...

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Standardized testing, Standardized testing - History of standardized tests, Standardized testing - Criticisms of standardized tests, Standardized testing - Advantages of standardized tests

Read more here: » Standardized testing: Encyclopedia II - Standardized testing - Criticisms of standardized tests

Composite measures of variables are created by combining two or more separate empirical indicators into a single measure. Composite measures measure complex concepts more adequately then single indicators, extend the range of scores available and are more efficient at handling multiplie items. In addition to scales, there are two other types of composite measures. Indexes are similar to scales except multiple indicators of a variable are combined into a single measure. The index of consumer confidence, for example, is a combination of several measures of consumer attitudes. A typology is similar to an ...

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Scale social sciences, Scale social sciences - Comparative and noncomparative scaling, Scale social sciences - Composite measures, Scale social sciences - Data types, Scale social sciences - Scale construction decisions, Scale social sciences - Comparative scaling techniques, Scale social sciences - Non-comparative scaling techniques, Scale social sciences - Scale evaluation, Scale social sciences - Lists of related topics

Read more here: » Scale social sciences: Encyclopedia II - Scale social sciences - Composite measures