Toruń

Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Prelude to the battle. The Poles were fighting to preserve their newly regained independence, lost in the 1795 Third Partition of Poland, and to carve out the borders of a new multinational federation (Międzymorze) from the territories of their former partitioners, Russia, Germany and Austro-Hungary. The Bolsheviks had in 1919 gained the upper hand in the Russian Civil War, dealing crippling blows to the White Russians. Vladimir Lenin viewed Poland as a bridge that had to be crosse ...

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Battle of Warsaw 1920, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - The battle, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Prelude to the battle, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - The battle plan, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - First phase August 12, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Second phase August 14, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Third phase August 16, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Aftermath, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Breaking of Soviet ciphers, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Orders of battle, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Polish, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Soviet, Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Notes

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Nicolaus Copernicus - Earlier theories. Much has been written about earlier heliocentric theories. Philolaus (4th century BC) was one of the first to hypothesize movement by the Earth, probably inspired by Pythagoras' theories about a spherical Globe. Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC had developed some theories of Heraclides Ponticus (speaking of a revolution by Earth on its axis) to propose what was, so far as is known, the first serious model of a heliocentric solar system. His work about a hel ...

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Nicolaus Copernicus, Nicolaus Copernicus - Biography, Nicolaus Copernicus - The Copernican heliocentric system, Nicolaus Copernicus - Earlier theories, Nicolaus Copernicus - The Ptolemaic system, Nicolaus Copernicus - Copernican theory, Nicolaus Copernicus - De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Nicolaus Copernicus - Copernicus and Copernicanism, Nicolaus Copernicus - Quotes, Nicolaus Copernicus - Grave

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The Nazis established six extermination camps (Vernichtungslager) in Poland. The primary intention of these camps was the extermination of the Jews from all the countries occupied by the Germans, except the Soviet Union (Soviet Jews were generally killed on the spot). Many non-Jewish Poles and other Nazi prisoners were also killed in these camps. These camps were as follows: Belzec (near the current Ukrainian border north-west of L'viv) Chełmno (known as Kulmhof in German, between Warsaw and Poznań) ...

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German camps in occupied Poland during World War II, German camps in occupied Poland during World War II - Extermination camps, German camps in occupied Poland during World War II - Concentration camps adjoining extermination camps, German camps in occupied Poland during World War II - Concentration camps, German camps in occupied Poland during World War II - Labour camps, German camps in occupied Poland during World War II - Prisoner of war camps, German camps in occupied Poland during World War II - Relief for victims, German camps in occupied Poland during World War II - External references

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Maciej Giertych was born March 24, 1936 in Warsaw, to a notable politician of the National Democracy movement Jędrzej Giertych. In 1945 his family left Poland for Germany and finally settled in the United Kingdom. In 1954 Giertych passed his final school exams and entered Oxford University. He received the BA and MA in dendrology. Between 1958 and 1962 he studied at the University of Toronto, where he rec ...

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Maciej Giertych, Maciej Giertych - Biography, Maciej Giertych - Views, Maciej Giertych - External link

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In Poland also known as Polish Gothic. Brick Gothic - Chełmno. St. Mary's church Church of S.S. Peter and Paul Church of S.S. Jacob and Nicholas City defense walls Brick Gothic - Gdańsk. St. Mary's Church in Gdansk Main City Hall St. Catherine church St. Nicholas church City gates Brick Gothic - Kraków. St. Mary's Church, Krakow Wawel Cathedral ...

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Brick Gothic, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Denmark, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Sweden, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Estonia, Brick Gothic - Tartu, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Germany, Brick Gothic - Bremen, Brick Gothic - Hamburg, Brick Gothic - Lübeck, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Latvia, Brick Gothic - Riga, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Lithuania, Brick Gothic - Vilnius, Brick Gothic - Kaunas, Brick Gothic - Trakai, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Poland, Brick Gothic - Chełmno, Brick Gothic - Gdańsk, Brick Gothic - Kraków, Brick Gothic - Malbork, Brick Gothic - Szczecin, Brick Gothic - Toruń, Brick Gothic - Wrocław, Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic in Russia

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Main article: History of Gdańsk, see also: History of Pomerania Gdańsk - Foundation and the Middle Ages. According to archeologists, the Gdańsk stronghold was built in the 980s by Mieszko I of Poland. However, the year 997 has in recent years been considered to be the date of the foundation of the city, this being the year when Saint Adalbert of Prague (sent by the Polish king Boleslaus the Brave) baptized the inhabitants ...

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Gdańsk, Gdańsk - Names, Gdańsk - Historical documents, Gdańsk - Special celebration names, Gdańsk - History, Gdańsk - Foundation and the Middle Ages, Gdańsk - World Wars and Inter-War Years, Gdańsk - Modern age, Gdańsk - Population developments, Gdańsk - Economy, Gdańsk - Culture, Gdańsk - Tourism, Gdańsk - Transportation, Gdańsk - Sports, Gdańsk - Politics and local government, Gdańsk - Regional center, Gdańsk - Education and science, Gdańsk - Scientific and regional organizations

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The party's views are populist and isolationist. The party wants state-funded agriculture, an increase in government social programs, an end to repayments of the foreign debt, introduction of an additional transaction tax and the use of financial reserves to obtain funding. The party is hostile towards foreign investments. Poland's June 2003 referendum on membership of the European Union was an uncomfortable experience for Samoobrona. On the one hand, the party's traditional isolationism and euroscepticism led it to call officially fo ...

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Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland, Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland - Political program, Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland - History, Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland - Leaders, Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland - Members of Polish Parliament Sejm 2001-2005, Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland - Members of European Parliament

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After Poland regained independence with the end of the First World War in 1918, the party merged with agrarian groups from territories previously occupied by Imperial Russia and formed the first PSL led by Wincenty Witos, which was one of the most important political parties in the Second Polish Republic, until it was removed by the Sanacja. During World War II, PSL took part in forming the Polish government in exile and organising. After the war the leader of PSL, Stanislaw Mikolajczyk, returned to Soviet occupied Poland, hoping to recreate ...

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Polish Peasant Party, Polish Peasant Party - History, Polish Peasant Party - Present day PSL, Polish Peasant Party - Leaders, Polish Peasant Party - Members of Polish Parliament Sejm 2001-2005, Polish Peasant Party - Former MPs from PSL, Polish Peasant Party - Members of Polish Senate, Polish Peasant Party - Members of European Parliament, Polish Peasant Party - PSL MEP in the EPP-ED group, Polish Peasant Party - PSL MEPs in the UEN group

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At its simplest, a defensive wall consists of a wall enclosure and its gates. For the most part, the top of the walls were accessible, with the outside of the walls having tall parapets with embrasures or merlons. North of the Alps, this passegeway at the top of the walls even had a roof. Occasionally, instead of a passageway, loose rocks were placed on top of the wall - these warned the defenders when the assailants were trying to climb the walls. Examples of this can be found in the fortif ...

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Defensive wall, Defensive wall - History, Defensive wall - Composition, Defensive wall - Decline, Defensive wall - Modern Era, Defensive wall - Africa, Defensive wall - Austria, Defensive wall - Azerbaijan, Defensive wall - Canada, Defensive wall - China, Defensive wall - Croatia, Defensive wall - France, Defensive wall - Germany, Defensive wall - Greece, Defensive wall - Hungary, Defensive wall - Israel, Defensive wall - Ireland, Defensive wall - Middle East, Defensive wall - Morocco and Western Sahara, Defensive wall - the Netherlands, Defensive wall - Philippines, Defensive wall - Poland, Defensive wall - Spain, Defensive wall - Sweden, Defensive wall - Turkey, Defensive wall - United Kingdom, Defensive wall - United States

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Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Karpaty Army. Created on July 11, 1939 under mj. gen. Kazimierz Fabrycy. Armia Karpaty was created after Germany annexed Czechoslovakia and created a puppet state of Slovakia. The main aim of the army was to secure mountain passes in the Carpathians. Initially the army consisted of 2 improvised mountain brigades and a number of smaller units, but later in the course of war was joined by forces of the withdrawing Armia Kraków. 2nd Mountain Brigade ( ...

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Polish army order of battle in 1939, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Armies, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Karpaty Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Kraków Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Lublin Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Łódź Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Modlin Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Pomorze Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Poznań Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Prusy Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Warszawa Army, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Operational Groups, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Wyszków Operational Group, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Narew Independent Operational Group, Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Supporting Forces

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DB - Wałbrzych (former Wałbrzych town) DBA - Wałbrzych (former Wałbrzych district) DBL - Bolesławiec DDZ - Dzierżoniów DGL - Głogów DGR - Góra DJ - Jelenia Góra (town) DJA - Jawor DJE - Jelenia Góra (district) DKA - Kamienna Góra DKL - Kłodzko DL - Legnica (town) DLB - Lubań DLE - Legnica (district) DLU - Lubin DLW - See also:

Polish car number plates, Polish car number plates - Polish car number plates since May 1 2000, Polish car number plates - District indicators, Polish car number plates - 1976 - 2000 series

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Nicolaus Copernicus - Earlier theories. Much has been written about earlier heliocentric theories. Philolaus (4th century BC) was one of the first to hypothesize movement by the Earth, probably inspired by Pythagoras' theories about a spherical Globe. Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC had developed some theories of Heraclides Ponticus (speaking of a revolution by Earth on its axis) to propose what was, so far as is known, the first serious model of a heliocentric solar system. His work about a hel ...

See also:

Nicolaus Copernicus, Nicolaus Copernicus - Biography, Nicolaus Copernicus - The Copernican heliocentric system, Nicolaus Copernicus - Earlier theories, Nicolaus Copernicus - The Ptolemaic system, Nicolaus Copernicus - Copernican theory, Nicolaus Copernicus - De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Nicolaus Copernicus - Copernicus and Copernicanism, Nicolaus Copernicus - Quotes, Nicolaus Copernicus - University, Nicolaus Copernicus - Grave

Read more here: » Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia II - Nicolaus Copernicus - The Copernican heliocentric system

96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality and 97.8% declare to speak Polish at home (Census 2002). The population of Poland became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world as a result of the radically altered borders after World War II and the subsequent migrations. Other than the Poles, Poland is also inhabited by: Ukrainians, the largest minority group, are scattered in various eastern and northern districts. There is new wave of Ukrainian immigration, now temporary with tendency to settle down i ...

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Demographics of Poland, Demographics of Poland - History, Demographics of Poland - Nationalities, Demographics of Poland - Information from Helsinki Foundation for Human Rights, Demographics of Poland - Interreg and Eurominority estimates, Demographics of Poland - Declared nationality Census 2002, Demographics of Poland - Biggest cities, Demographics of Poland - Statistical indicators, Demographics of Poland - Outside Links

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Rzeszów was founded in 1354 by king Kazimierz Wielki. For a long time it was just a domain of the noble family of Lubomirski, one of most important in Poland. Besides having a famous annual market, Rzeszow remained only another city on the trade route to Hungary. In 1658 Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski established the Piarist school, the second secondary school in Poland. During the XIX century Rzeszów began to lose significance in favour of Przemysl. Development of Rzeszów started when in 1937 military industry was located in the city: Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze, producing aircraft engines, and a ...

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Rzeszów, Rzeszów - Location, Rzeszów - History, Rzeszów - Education, Rzeszów - Transport, Rzeszów - Transit, Rzeszów - Airport, Rzeszów - Buses, Rzeszów - Railway, Rzeszów - Culture, Rzeszów - Theaters, Rzeszów - Museums, Rzeszów - Economy, Rzeszów - Industry, Rzeszów - Tourist attractions, Rzeszów - Sports, Rzeszów - Media, Rzeszów - Radio, Rzeszów - Press, Rzeszów - Television, Rzeszów - External link

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Thirteen Years' War - First phase. The first land operations (February - August 1454) were carried out by Prussian state conscripts, supported by Czech mercenaries from Moravia, Lesser Poland, etc. This force, commanded by Ścibor Bażynski (Scibor von Baysen, brother of Johannes von Baysen), tried to besiege the Grand Master Ludvik von Erlichhausen in the city and castle of Malbork, but without much success, due to the professional command of Heinri ...

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Thirteen Years' War, Thirteen Years' War - Preliminaries, Thirteen Years' War - Reasons behind the war, Thirteen Years' War - International situation, Thirteen Years' War - The Forces of the Belligerents, Thirteen Years' War - Overview, Thirteen Years' War - First phase, Thirteen Years' War - Second phase, Thirteen Years' War - Aftermath, Thirteen Years' War - Important persons

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Prior to the outbreak of World War II, on July 10, 1939 the defence of the Polish Pomerania was reorganized into two separate commands under the leadership of Ctr.Adm. Unrug. Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - Land Coastal Command. The Land Coastal Command (Lądowa Obrona Wybrzeża, LOW), subordinate to the Toruń-based military area command led by Gen. Władysław Bortnowski, was led by Col. Józef Sass-Hoszowski and, since July 23, by Col. See also:

Polish Navy order of battle in 1939, Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - Peace-time organization, Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - War-time organization, Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - Land Coastal Command, Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - Naval Coastal Command, Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - Naval Air Squadron, Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - Riverine flotillas, Polish Navy order of battle in 1939 - External link

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The Nicolaus Copernicus University (NCU) in Torun was established in 1945. It is the largest university in northern Poland and is outstanding in terms of academic potential, courses of study on offer, forms of education, and number of students. The University employs a total staff of over 4,000, of whom 2,306 are academic teachers. The NCU is composed of thirteen faculties: the Faculty of Biology and Earth Sciences, the Faculty of Chemistry, the Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management, the Faculty of Fine Arts, the Faculty of Heal ...

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Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - History, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - School Authorities, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - Staff, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - Number of students, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - Levels of study offered by institution, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - Diplomas and degrees, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - International cooperation, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - Faculties, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń - Notable alumni

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Olsztyn - Olsztyn constituency. Members of the Seym (Sejm) elected from Olsztyn constituency in 2005 Mieczysław Aszkiełowicz, Samoobrona, (Self-Defence) Beata Bublewicz, PO (Platforma Obywatelska, Civic Platform) Jerzy Gosiewski, PiS (Prawo i Sprawiedliwość, Law And Justice) Tadeusz Iwiński, SLD (Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, The Alliance Of The Democratic Left) Edward Ośko, LPR (Liga Polskich Rodzin, The League Of Polish Fa ...

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Olsztyn, Olsztyn - Geography, Olsztyn - History, Olsztyn - Economy, Olsztyn - Buildings, Olsztyn - Education, Olsztyn - Regional and scientific societies, Olsztyn - Sports, Olsztyn - Famous people, Olsztyn - Politics, Olsztyn - Olsztyn constituency, Olsztyn - Postage stamps

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World War II evacuation and expulsion - Deportation of Jews. After the September Campaign Western pre-WWII Polish territories were incorporated in the German Reich The area was subdivided into three Regierungsbezirke ("administrative districts") – Poznan, Inowroclaw, and Łódź. On September 1, 1939, it had 390,000 Jews (including 4,500 in Poznan, 54,090 in Inowroclaw, and 326,000 in the Łódź district – 233,000 in the city of Łódź). Like all Polish areas incorporated into the Reich, Wartheland was from ...

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World War II evacuation and expulsion, World War II evacuation and expulsion - Europe, World War II evacuation and expulsion - Deportation of Jews, World War II evacuation and expulsion - Deportation of Poles, World War II evacuation and expulsion - Deportation of Germans and Others, World War II evacuation and expulsion - Asia, World War II evacuation and expulsion - Jewish Resettlement in Palestine, World War II evacuation and expulsion - The development refugee organisations

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The style emphasizes verticality and features almost skeletal stone structures with great expanses of glass, sharply pointed spires, cluster columns, flying buttresses, ribbed vaults, pointed arches using the ogive shape, and inventive sculptural detail. These features are all the consequence of a focus on large stained-glass windows that allowed more light to enter than was possible with older styles. To achieve this "light" style, flying buttresses were used as a means of support to enable higher ceilings and slender columns. Many of these features had already appeared, for example i ...

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Gothic architecture, Gothic architecture - Origins, Gothic architecture - The Term Gothic, Gothic architecture - Characteristics, Gothic architecture - Brick Gothic, Gothic architecture - Gothic Architecture in England, Gothic architecture - Sequence of Gothic Styles: France, Gothic architecture - Sequence of Gothic styles: England, Gothic architecture - Gothic revival, Gothic architecture - Gothic in the 20th Century, Gothic architecture - List of notable Gothic structures, Gothic architecture - Some famous Neo-Gothic structures

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August was born in Dresden, Saxony, the son of John George III and of Princess Anne Sophie of Denmark. In 1694, upon the death of his elder brother John George IV, August became Elector of Saxony as Frederick Augustus I. Following the death of Polish King Jan III Sobieski, August converted to Catholicism and in 1697 was elected King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with the backing of Russia and Austria, which finan ...

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August II the Strong, August II the Strong - Royal titles, August II the Strong - Biography

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Situated at a long existing trading place, a city was first recorded in the 10th century as Vratislavia (Wratislaw) (the origin of its various later names) after Vratislav I. The settlement was conquered by the Polish duke Mieszko I in the 990s. Already a place of some importance, it became the capital of Silesia in 1138, where Silesians had founded a settlement south of the river. During the Mongol invasion in 1241 most of the population of the city was evacuated. The settlement was then sacked and burned by the Mongols, but they had no time to besiege the castle where th ...

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Wrocław, Wrocław - City's name, Wrocław - History, Wrocław - Significant events in the 20th century, Wrocław - Historical population, Wrocław - Administrative division, Wrocław - Prominent people from Wrocław, Wrocław - Nobel Prize laureates from Wrocław, Wrocław - Education, Wrocław - Economy and transportation, Wrocław - Economy, Wrocław - Major corporations, Wrocław - Politics, Wrocław - Wrocław constituency, Wrocław - Municipal politics, Wrocław - Sports, Wrocław - Men's professional teams, Wrocław - Women's professional teams, Wrocław - Amateur teams, Wrocław - Notable places and buildings, Wrocław - Books

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