Toruń - Article Index

Encyclopedia - Toruń: Encyclopedia Ii - Toruń - City Name
Early documents record the city name as Thorun (1226, 1466),Turon, Turun, Toron, and Thoron, and, after the 15th century, the current Pol...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Toruń: Encyclopedia Ii - Toruń - City Name
Early documents record the city name as Thorun (1226, 1466),Turon, Turun, Toron, and Thoron, and, after the 15th century, the current Pol...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Defensive Wall: Encyclopedia - Defensive Wall
A defensive wall is a fortification used to defend a city from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclos...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Brick Gothic: Encyclopedia - Brick Gothic
Brick Gothic is a reduced style of Gothic architecture in Northern Europe, especially in the regions around the Baltic Sea without natura...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - 1411: Encyclopedia - 1411
1411 - Events. February 11 : Peace of Toruń 1411 signed in Toruń, Poland 1411 - Births. September 21 - Richard Plantagenet...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Vistula: Encyclopedia - Vistula
The Vistula (Polish: Wisła) is the longest river in Poland. It is 1,047 kilometers (678 miles) long and drains about 192,000 square kilo...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus
Mikołaj Kopernik (February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543), more commonly known by the Latin form Nicolaus Copernicus, was a Polish[1] astrol...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Warmia: Encyclopedia - Warmia
Warmia (Polish: Warmia, German: Ermland, Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Wrocław: Encyclopedia - Wrocław
Wrocław, ([:vrɔʦwaf], German Breslau, Czech Vratislav, Latin Wratislavia; many Polish documents in English use the spelling Wroclaw) i...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Thorn: Encyclopedia - Thorn
Thorn has several meanings: Thorn, a sharp structure or growth on plants. See spine (biology) Thorn (letter) ( Þ, þ ), a letter in the...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - August Ii The Strong: Encyclopedia - August Ii The Strong
August II the Strong (Polish: August II Mocny; German: August II der Starke; May 12, 1670 – February 1, 1733) was Elector of Saxony (wh...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Kazimierz Serocki: Encyclopedia Ii - Kazimierz Serocki - Life
He studied composition with Kazimierz Sikorski and piano with Stanisław Szpinalski at the State Higher School of Music in Łódź and gr...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - League Of Polish Families: Encyclopedia Ii - League Of Polish Families - Political Agenda
The political agenda is Christian left. However, recently the party has begun to emphasize populism, patriotism and far right social valu...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Law And Justice: Encyclopedia Ii - Law And Justice - Political Program
In comparison with the other major conservative party (the PO), PiS projects a more traditional, eurosceptic and populist image overall. ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - International Chemistry Olympiad: Encyclopedia Ii - International Chemistry Olympiad - Structure And Rules Of The Competition
Each delegation consists of up to four students, and two mentors (one of them is designated as the head of the delegation). A delegation ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of Rivers Of Europe: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of Rivers Of Europe - Barents Sea And White Sea Arctic Ocean
The rivers in this section are sorted east (Novaya Zemlya) to west (North Cape, Norway). In Russia: Pechora (north-east of Naryan-Mar) ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Gorzów Wielkopolski: Encyclopedia Ii - Gorzów Wielkopolski - Politics
Gorzów Wielkopolski - Gorzow Wielkopolski/Zielona Gora constituency. Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from this constituency Dari...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of City Nicknames: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of City Nicknames - Patterns
There are some common types of city nicknames. List of city nicknames - Agricultural or Industrial Capitals. Many cities have nicknames...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of Medical Schools: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of Medical Schools - South America
List of medical schools - Argentina. Medical School of the University of Buenos Aires List of medical schools - Bolivia. List of m...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of City Nicknames: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of City Nicknames - Patterns
There are some common types of city nicknames. List of city nicknames - Agricultural or Industrial Capitals. Many cities have nicknames...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Hanseatic League: Encyclopedia Ii - Hanseatic League - History
The origins of the League are generally traced to the foundation of the new town of Lübeck in 1158/1159 after the capture of the area by...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Monastic State Of The Teutonic Knights: Encyclopedia Ii - Monastic State Of The Teutonic Knights - History
Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights - 13th century. In 1237 the Teutonic Knights absorbed the Order of the Sword Knights (establishe...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Poland 1945–1989: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Poland 1945–1989 - Creation Of The People's Republic Of Poland 1945–1956
History of Poland 1945–1989 - Wartime devastation. Poland suffered enormous losses during World War II. While in 1939 Poland had 35.1...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Leiden: Encyclopedia Ii - Leiden - History
It is true that Leiden is an old town, but its claimed connection with Roman Lugdunum Batavorum is spurious; this Roman encampment would ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Military District: Encyclopedia Ii - Military District - Germany
Germany used the system of military districts (German: Wehrkreis) with an aim of relieving field commanders of as much purely administrat...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of Cathedrals: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of Cathedrals - China People's Republic Of
List of cathedrals - Hong Kong. St John's Cathedral (聖約翰座堂) (The Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (香港聖公會) (Hong Kong Angli...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of Light-rail Transit Systems: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of Light-rail Transit Systems - Asia
List of light-rail transit systems - People's Republic of China. Anshan Changchun Dalian Hong Kong - Hong Kong Tramways, KCR Light...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of Zoos: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of Zoos - Europe
List of zoos - Austria. Tiergarten Schönbrunn Zoo Vienna, Vienna Tier- und Naturpark Schloss Herberstein, Herberstein Castle, Styria ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - .pl: Encyclopedia Ii - .pl - History
The .pl domain was created in 1990, following the mitigation of COCOM embargo on technological collaboration with post-communist countrie...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Partitions Of Poland: Encyclopedia Ii - Partitions Of Poland - History
Partitions of Poland - Prelude. One could characterise Poland-Lithuania before the partitions as already not a completely sovereign sta...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Antoni Grabowski: Encyclopedia Ii - Antoni Grabowski - Education And Career
Soon after his birth, Grabowski's family moved from Nowe Dobre to Thorn (Toruń). Due to his parents' poverty, Grabowski had to start wor...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Poland: Encyclopedia Ii - Poland - History
Poland began to form into a recognizable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty. Po...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Warmia: Encyclopedia Ii - Warmia - History
The first traces of human settlement in the region come from ca. 14-15,000 years ago. They are many traces of settlements made by the Lus...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Pomerania: Encyclopedia Ii - Pomerania - History Of Pomerania
For history before 1400 please refer to main article History of Pomerania. Pomerania - Duchy of Pomerania in 15th century. Throughout t...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Vistula: Encyclopedia Ii - Vistula - History
It is not known whether the name Vistula is Indo-European or pre-Indo-European. The name was first recorded by Pliny in AD 77 in his Natu...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Baltic Institute: Encyclopedia Ii - Baltic Institute - History
The Baltic Institute was established in 1925 in Toruń, beginning real activities in 1927, with the main goal of documenting the Polish h...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Opole Voivodship: Encyclopedia Ii - Opole Voivodship - Geographical Location
The Opole voivodship lies in south-western Poland. The major part of the voivodship is on the Silesian Lowland (Nizina Slaska). To the ea...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - List Of Twin Towns And Sister Cities: Encyclopedia Ii - List Of Twin Towns And Sister Cities - Europe
List of twin towns and sister cities - Albania. Tirana - Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996) List of twin towns and sister citie...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Defensive Wall: Encyclopedia Ii - Defensive Wall - Composition
At its simplest, a defensive wall consists of a wall enclosure and its gates. For the most part, the top of the walls were accessible, wi...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Cinema City Poland: Encyclopedia Ii - Cinema City Poland - Corporate Governance
Company's Management Board consist of three members: Mr. Moshe (Mooky) Greidinger (CEO) Mr. Amos Weltsch (COO) Mr. Israel Greidinger (CF...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Bydgoszcz: Encyclopedia Ii - Bydgoszcz - History
Originally a fishers' settlement called Bydgoszcz (spelled "Bydgostia" in Latin), the city became a stronghold for the Vistula trade rout...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Battle Of Warsaw 1920: Encyclopedia Ii - Battle Of Warsaw 1920 - The Battle
Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Prelude to the battle. The Poles were fighting to preserve their newly regained independence, lost in the 1795 ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus - The Copernican Heliocentric System
Nicolaus Copernicus - Earlier theories. Much has been written about earlier heliocentric theories. Philolaus (4th century BC) was one o...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - German Camps In Occupied Poland During World War Ii: Encyclopedia Ii - German Camps In Occupied Poland During World War Ii - Extermination Camps
The Nazis established six extermination camps (Vernichtungslager) in Poland. The primary intention of these camps was the extermination o...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Maciej Giertych: Encyclopedia Ii - Maciej Giertych - Biography
Maciej Giertych was born March 24, 1936 in Warsaw, to a notable politician of the National Democracy movement Jędrzej Giertych. In 1945 ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Brick Gothic: Encyclopedia Ii - Brick Gothic - Brick Gothic In Poland
In Poland also known as Polish Gothic. Brick Gothic - Chełmno. St. Mary's church Church of S.S. Peter and Paul Church of S.S. Jacob a...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Gdańsk: Encyclopedia Ii - Gdańsk - History
Main article: History of Gdańsk, see also: History of Pomerania Gdańsk - Foundation and the Middle Ages. According to archeologists, ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Self-defense Of The Republic Of Poland: Encyclopedia Ii - Self-defense Of The Republic Of Poland - Political Program
The party's views are populist and isolationist. The party wants state-funded agriculture, an increase in government social programs, an ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Peasant Party: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Peasant Party - History
After Poland regained independence with the end of the First World War in 1918, the party merged with agrarian groups from territories pr...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Defensive Wall: Encyclopedia Ii - Defensive Wall - Composition
At its simplest, a defensive wall consists of a wall enclosure and its gates. For the most part, the top of the walls were accessible, wi...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Army Order Of Battle In 1939: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Army Order Of Battle In 1939 - Armies
Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Karpaty Army. Created on July 11, 1939 under mj. gen. Kazimierz Fabrycy. Armia Karpaty was create...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Car Number Plates: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Car Number Plates - District Indicators
DB - Wałbrzych (former Wałbrzych town) DBA - Wałbrzych (former Wałbrzych district) DBL - Bolesławiec DDZ - Dzierżoniów DGL - Głog...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus - The Copernican Heliocentric System
Nicolaus Copernicus - Earlier theories. Much has been written about earlier heliocentric theories. Philolaus (4th century BC) was one o...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Demographics Of Poland: Encyclopedia Ii - Demographics Of Poland - Nationalities
96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality and 97.8% declare to speak Polish at home (Census 2002). The population of Poland ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Rzeszów: Encyclopedia Ii - Rzeszów - History
Rzeszów was founded in 1354 by king Kazimierz Wielki. For a long time it was just a domain of the noble family of Lubomirski, one of mos...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Thirteen Years' War: Encyclopedia Ii - Thirteen Years' War - Overview
Thirteen Years' War - First phase. The first land operations (February - August 1454) were carried out by Prussian state conscripts, su...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Navy Order Of Battle In 1939: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Navy Order Of Battle In 1939 - War-time Organization
Prior to the outbreak of World War II, on July 10, 1939 the defence of the Polish Pomerania was reorganized into two separate commands un...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus University In Toruń: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus University In Toruń - History
The Nicolaus Copernicus University (NCU) in Torun was established in 1945. It is the largest university in northern Poland and is outstan...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Olsztyn: Encyclopedia Ii - Olsztyn - Politics
Olsztyn - Olsztyn constituency. Members of the Seym (Sejm) elected from Olsztyn constituency in 2005 Mieczysław Aszkiełowicz, Samoob...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - World War Ii Evacuation And Expulsion: Encyclopedia Ii - World War Ii Evacuation And Expulsion - Europe
World War II evacuation and expulsion - Deportation of Jews. After the September Campaign Western pre-WWII Polish territories were inco...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Gothic Architecture: Encyclopedia Ii - Gothic Architecture - Characteristics
The style emphasizes verticality and features almost skeletal stone structures with great expanses of glass, sharply pointed spires, clus...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - August Ii The Strong: Encyclopedia Ii - August Ii The Strong - Biography
August was born in Dresden, Saxony, the son of John George III and of Princess Anne Sophie of Denmark. In 1694, upon the death of his eld...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Wrocław: Encyclopedia Ii - Wrocław - History
Situated at a long existing trading place, a city was first recorded in the 10th century as Vratislavia (Wratislaw) (the origin of its va...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Podlasie Voivodship: Encyclopedia Ii - Podlasie Voivodship - Agriculture
Arable land constitutes around 60 % of the total area of the region – most of which is ploughland (around 40 %), forests, meadows and p...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Geographical Centre Of Europe: Encyclopedia Ii - Geographical Centre Of Europe - Historical Measurements
Geographical centre of Europe - Early measurements. In 1775 the Polish Astronomer Royal Szymon Antoni Sobiekrajski published a report i...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Gdynia: Encyclopedia Ii - Gdynia - History
The first known mention of the name "Gdynia" was of a Pomeranian (Kashubian) fishing village, in 1253. Oksywie, now part of Gdynia, was m...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Thirteen Years' War: Encyclopedia Ii - Thirteen Years' War - International Situation
In 1454 Poland was in conflict with Lithuania, which meant that although Casimir IV was Grand Duke of Lithuania as well as King of Poland...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - World War Ii Evacuation And Expulsion: Encyclopedia Ii - World War Ii Evacuation And Expulsion - Asia
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 sparked a lasting refugee crisis, which in many respects persisted until the final resolution ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Battle Of Warsaw 1920: Encyclopedia Ii - Battle Of Warsaw 1920 - Orders Of Battle
Battle of Warsaw 1920 - Polish. 3 Fronts (Northern, Central, Southern), 7 Armies, a total of 32 divisions: 46,000 infantry; 2,000 caval...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Thirteen Years' War: Encyclopedia Ii - Thirteen Years' War - The Forces Of The Belligerents
The main part of the Polish army of that period was conscripted. All noblemen from the class known as the Szlachta, when called by the ki...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Car Number Plates: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Car Number Plates - 1976 - 2000 Series
Plates 1976 - 2000 series are stil valid. It has white letters on black background. There was coding too: ### **** or ### ***# (at the be...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Rzeszów: Encyclopedia Ii - Rzeszów - Transport
Rzeszów - Transit. Rzeszów is located on international route number 4, connecting Germany and Ukraine. Traffic is therefore high, but...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Rzeszów: Encyclopedia Ii - Rzeszów - Culture
Rzeszów - Theaters. Theatre of Wanda Siemaszkowa (est. 1944) Theatre Maska Rzeszów - Museums. Etnographic Museum Museum of City ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Bydgoszcz: Encyclopedia Ii - Bydgoszcz - Economy
Bydgoszcz - Major corporations. Zachem SA, Bydgoszcz Zespół Elektrociepłowni Bydgoszcz SA, Bydgoszcz PESA Pojazdy Szynowe (PESA Rai...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Rzeszów: Encyclopedia Ii - Rzeszów - Media
Rzeszów - Radio. Radio Rzeszów Radio Eska Rzeszów Akademickie Radio Centrum Katolickie Radio Via Radio RES Rzeszów - Press. Dz...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Vistula: Encyclopedia Ii - Vistula - Towns And Tributaries
Vistula - Towns and tributaries. Biała Wisełka Vistula valley east of Toruń Vistula flooding south of Warsaw, 2004 Bridge across the...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Rzeszów: Encyclopedia Ii - Rzeszów - Economy
Rzeszów - Industry. Valeant Rzeszow (formerly Polfa Rzeszów) - pharmacy Pratt & Whitney - plane engines Zelmer - household equip...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Thirteen Years' War: Encyclopedia Ii - Thirteen Years' War - Preliminaries
Thirteen Years' War - Reasons behind the war. In the 15th century, the states of Prussia saw the rapid economic development of their ci...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Vistula: Encyclopedia Ii - Vistula - Navigation
The Vistula is navigable, but over large parts of its course the standards do not entirely meet the requirements of modern inland navigat...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Self-defense Of The Republic Of Poland: Encyclopedia Ii - Self-defense Of The Republic Of Poland - History
The party first started in parliamentary elections in 1993, gaining 2.78% votes and failing to enter the Sejm. In 1995 Andrzej Lepper ran...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Army Order Of Battle In 1939: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Army Order Of Battle In 1939 - Operational Groups
Polish army order of battle in 1939 - Wyszków Operational Group. Was one of the reserves of the northern front of Polish defences. It ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Law And Justice: Encyclopedia Ii - Law And Justice - Prominent Members
Law and Justice - Party Chairmen. Lech Kaczyński 2001-2003 (resigned after taking office as President of Warsaw). Formally resigned f...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Law And Justice: Encyclopedia Ii - Law And Justice - History
The party was created on a wave of popularity gained by Lech Kaczyński, while heading the Polish Ministry of Justice (June 2000 to July ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Law And Justice: Encyclopedia Ii - Law And Justice - Vocal Criticism
The party has attracted quite a lot of vocal criticism at home and abroad, especially during the drawn-out pre-election period in late 20...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Navy Order Of Battle In 1939: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Navy Order Of Battle In 1939 - Peace-time Organization
The Polish Navy was organized into a a Warsaw-based Naval Command, subordinate to the Commander in Chief of the Polish forces, and severa...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - League Of Polish Families: Encyclopedia Ii - League Of Polish Families - History
The party was created just before the elections in 2001 and gained 8% of the votes which gave it 38 out of 460 seats. Their leader is Rom...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus - Biography
Copernicus was born in 1473 at Toruń (Thorn) in the Polish province of Royal Prussia. His father Nikolas, a citizen of Kraków, then the...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus - Copernicus And Copernicanism
Copernicus' theory is of extraordinary importance in the history of human knowledge. Many authors suggest that only Euclid's geometry, Is...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus - Quotes
Goethe: "Of all discoveries and opinions, none may have exerted a greater effect on the human spirit than the doctrine of Copernicus. Th...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Maciej Giertych: Encyclopedia Ii - Maciej Giertych - Views
Maciej Giertych opposes lifting the ban on purchase of land in Poland by foreigners (due to fears of resurgence of German colonialism), h...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus - Grave
In August 2005, a team of Polish archeologists led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an archaeology and anthropology institute in Pułtusk, in...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Navy Order Of Battle In 1939: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Navy Order Of Battle In 1939 - Riverine Flotillas
Main article: Riverine Flotilla of the Polish Navy During the Polish-Bolshevik War the Pinsk Marshes in modern Belarus proved to be al...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Peasant Party: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Peasant Party - Present Day Psl
In the last parliamentary elections the party received 7% of votes giving it 25 seats in the Sejm and 2 seats in the Senate. In the 2001 ...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Nicolaus Copernicus: Encyclopedia Ii - Nicolaus Copernicus - Biography
Copernicus was born in 1473 at Toruń (Thorn) in a Polish province of Royal Prussia. His father Nikolas, a citizen of Cracow (Kraków), t...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Defensive Wall: Encyclopedia Ii - Defensive Wall - History
Defensive walls are an evolved form of the palisades and other defensive measure employed to protect early settlements. From very early h...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Cinema City Poland: Encyclopedia Ii - Cinema City Poland - Merger
In 2002 Cinema City took over Polish cinemas belonging to Ster Century Company, which withdrawed from the Polish market. Cinema City star...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - Polish Car Number Plates: Encyclopedia Ii - Polish Car Number Plates - Polish Car Number Plates Since May 1 2000
Polish 2000 series car plates have black letters on a white background. Each town/district has its two or three letter code. There are lo...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - German Camps In Occupied Poland During World War Ii: Encyclopedia Ii - German Camps In Occupied Poland During World War Ii - Concentration Camps
A concentration camp (Konzentrationslager, KL or KZ) was a camp which was designed to exploit the labour of prisoners, rather than to ext...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - German Camps In Occupied Poland During World War Ii: Encyclopedia Ii - German Camps In Occupied Poland During World War Ii - Labour Camps
The Germans pressed large numbers of Poles into forced labour. These labourers were confined in camps known in German as Polenlager, such...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Poland 1945–1989: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Poland 1945–1989 - Changes In Polish Society
The Communist years in Poland saw many dramatic changes, both political and social. There were a number of shifts in the social class com...   » Read the article

Encyclopedia - History Of Poland 1945–1989: Encyclopedia Ii - History Of Poland 1945–1989 - The End Of Communist Rule 1980–1990
In September 1980, the increasingly frail Gierek was removed from office and replaced as Party leader by Stanisław Kania. Kania made the...   » Read the article