Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks. Hetman - a Ukrainian Cossack supreme military leader Bulava - a ceremonial mace, a symbol of Hetman's authority Starshyna - officers polkovnyk - colonel oboznyi osavul khorunzhyi Otaman - lieutenant tabor - a tactic using a set of horse-drawn wagons, mastered by Cossacks in 16-17th century See also:

Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Origins, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

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As a result of these disclosures the congress of rabbis in Brody proclaimed a strong Cherem (Hebrew for excommunication) against all impenitent heretics, and made it obligatory upon every pious Jew to search them out and expose them. The persecuted sectarians informed Dembrowsky, the Catholic Bishop of Kamenetz-Podolsk, that the Jewish sect to which they belonged rejected the Talmud and recognized only the sacred book of Kabbalah, the Zohar, which they alleged admitted the truth of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. They claimed t ...

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Jacob Frank, Jacob Frank - Historical background, Jacob Frank - Social-economic conditions, Jacob Frank - Early life of Frank, Jacob Frank - The anti-Talmudists, Jacob Frank - Declaration of being a succesor to Shabbethai Zevi, Jacob Frank - Baptism of the Frankists, Jacob Frank - Frank in prison

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The native land of the Russian Cossacks is defined by a line of the Russian town-fortresses located on the border with the steppe and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practising various trades and crafts. These people, constantly facing the Tatar warriors on the steppe frontier, received the Turkic name "cossacks" which was then extended to other free people in northern Russia. The ...

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Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Origins, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

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Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation state, but the term can also apply at subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity, or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. Citizenship as explained above is the political rights of an individual within a society. Thus ...

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Citizenship, Citizenship - Subnational citizenship, Citizenship - Supranational citizenship, Citizenship - European Union EU citizenship, Citizenship - Commonwealth citizenship, Citizenship - Honorary citizenship, Citizenship - Historical citizenship

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In most of Ethiopia and Eritrea, a patronymic custom exists. Children are given the father's exact first name as their surname. Common tigrinya names include Gebrezghi (worker of God), Hailesellasie (Power of the Trinity), Hailemariam (Power of the Virgin Mary), Desta (joy) , Abraha (bright), Araya (example), Berhane (Light) , Hagos (happiness) , Gebremichael (work of Michael) , Demoz (sal ...

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Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia

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As a national hero of both Poland and the USA, Kościuszko became the namesake of numerous places in the world. The Polish explorer Count Paweł Edmund Strzelecki named the highest mountain on the Australian continent, Mount Kosciuszko, for him. Nowadays the mountain is the central point of the Kosciuszko National Park. He is also the namesake of Kosciusko, Mississippi, Kosciusko County in Indiana, the two Kosciuszko Bridges in New York State (one just north of Albany, the other on the Brooklyn Queens Expressway), and Thaddeus Koscius ...

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Tadeusz Kościuszko, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Biography, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Early life, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Kościuszko in France, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Return to Poland, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Dresden and Paris, Tadeusz Kościuszko - American Revolutionary War, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Return to Poland, Tadeusz Kościuszko - War in Defence of the Constitution, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Emigration, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Kościuszko Uprising, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Later life, Tadeusz Kościuszko - Things and places named after Kościuszko

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This time the rabbis energetically repulsed their opponents. After the discussion the Frankists were requested to demonstrate in practise their adherence to Christianity (1759); Jacob Frank, who had then arrived in Lemberg, encouraged his followers to take the decisive step. The baptism of the Frankists was celebrated with great solemnity in the churches of Lwów, members of the Polish szlachta acting as god-parents. The neophytes adopted the names of their godfathers and godmothers, and ultimately joined the ranks of the Polish nobility. In ...

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Jacob Frank, Jacob Frank - Historical background, Jacob Frank - Social-economic conditions, Jacob Frank - Early life of Frank, Jacob Frank - The anti-Talmudists, Jacob Frank - Declaration of being a succesor to Shabbethai Zevi, Jacob Frank - Baptism of the Frankists, Jacob Frank - Frank in prison

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In 1625, the Swedes quickly occupied all of Livonia and Courland by the year's end. In May 1626 Gustav Adolf began the surprising invasion of Prussia. Gustav's landing in East Prussia near Pillau (Baltiysk, Piława]]) with over 8,000 soldiers came as a surprise to the Commonwealth and despite his relatively small forces, Gustav Adolf acting with the support of the Elector of Brandenburg quickly captured all of the coastal towns, with the exception of the largest prize: the city of Gdańsk (Danzig). Commonwealth received no support from its v ...

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Polish-Swedish War, Polish-Swedish War - Livonian War, Polish-Swedish War - Polish-Sweden War of 1600-1611, Polish-Swedish War - Polish-Sweden War of 1620-1622, Polish-Swedish War - Polish-Sweden War of 1625-1629, Polish-Swedish War - The Deluge, Polish-Swedish War - The Northern Wars, Polish-Swedish War - The Great Northern War

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Having singed the Treaty of Stolbovo ending their Ingrian War with Russia in 1617 the Swedes, led by king Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus), who was hailed as saviour of Protestant Europe, turned their attention to the Commonwealth again. They have expanded their gains in the disputed Livonia region, taking Dünamünde and Pernau in 1617. When the truce expired in November 1620, Gustav Adolf succeeded in taking the city of Riga after a few weeks of siege. Commonwealth, occupied by a serious war with Ottomans (battles of Cecora and C ...

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Polish-Swedish War, Polish-Swedish War - Livonian War, Polish-Swedish War - Polish-Sweden War of 1600-1611, Polish-Swedish War - Polish-Sweden War of 1620-1622, Polish-Swedish War - Polish-Sweden War of 1625-1629, Polish-Swedish War - The Deluge, Polish-Swedish War - The Northern Wars, Polish-Swedish War - The Great Northern War

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He had a daughter, who married Henry Brougham on April 24, 1923. One of the Baron's nephews was Count Alfred von Niezychowski. Alfred was a Polish "szlachta" noble who entered the German merchant marine to be an officer aboard German passenger liners. In 1914, Niezychowski was pulled into World War I when his ship the Kronprinz Wilhelm was drafted into the German Imperial Navy and turned into an auxiliary cruiser. The ship proceeded to raid commerce ships in the southern Atlantic until it ran out of ...

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Ladislaus Hengelmuller, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - The Hengelmuller-Washington Incident, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Ambassadorship, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Family, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Alternate name spellings, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Works, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Trivia

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His father Zygmunt III Vasa, grandson of Gustav I of Sweden, had succeeded his father to the Swedish throne in 1592, only to be deposed in 1599 by his uncle, subsequently Charles IX. This led to a long-standing feud where the Polish kings of the house of Vasa claimed the Swedish throne. The effects of this were the Swedish War (1600-1629) and later, The Deluge of 1655. Sigismund, a devout Catholic, pursued other military conflicts abroad, barely avoiding involving the Commonwealth in the Thirty Year War and supported counter-reformation, both policies which lead to increasing tensions inside the Commonwealth. See also:

Władysław IV Vasa, Władysław IV Vasa - Royal titles, Władysław IV Vasa - Biography, Władysław IV Vasa - Prince, Władysław IV Vasa - King, Władysław IV Vasa - Achievements, Władysław IV Vasa - Successes, Władysław IV Vasa - Failures, Władysław IV Vasa - Other

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Since its return to democracy, Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of liberalising the economy and today stands out as one of the most successful and open examples of the transition from a partially state-capitalist market economy to a primarily privately owned market economy. The privatisation of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed for the rapid development of an aggressive private sector, followed by a development of consumer rights organisations later on. Restructuring ...

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Poland, Poland - Name, Poland - History, Poland - Politics, Poland - Geography, Poland - Principal Cities, Poland - Administrative division, Poland - Economy, Poland - Science technology and education, Poland - Telecommunication and IT, Poland - Transportation, Poland - Tourism and holidays, Poland - Demographics, Poland - Culture, Poland - UNESCO World Heritage in Poland, Poland - International rankings

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Władysław IV is one of the personages in a famous painting by Jan Matejko, depicting the preaching of Piotr Skarga. Fort and town of Władysławowo was named after him. ...

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Władysław IV Vasa, Władysław IV Vasa - Royal titles, Władysław IV Vasa - Biography, Władysław IV Vasa - Prince, Władysław IV Vasa - King, Władysław IV Vasa - Achievements, Władysław IV Vasa - Successes, Władysław IV Vasa - Failures, Władysław IV Vasa - Other

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The Baron took over as ambassador from Ernst Schmitt von Tavera. From 1894-1903, the Baron's title was "Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary" (Ausserordentliche Gesandte und bevollmächtigte Minister), and then from 1903-1913 he was "Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary" (Ausserordentliche und bevollmächtigte Botschafter). [2] He was one of the signatories on the 1909 treaty to "resolve international disputes" between the United States and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which pr ...

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Ladislaus Hengelmuller, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - The Hengelmuller-Washington Incident, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Ambassadorship, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Family, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Alternate name spellings, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Works, Ladislaus Hengelmuller - Trivia

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The education of Polish society was a goal of rulers as early as the 12th century. The library catalog of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków dating back to 1110 shows that already in the early 12th century Polish intellectuals had access to the European literature. In 1364, in Kraków, the Jagiellonian University, founded by King Kazimierz Wielki, became one of Europe's great early universities. In 1773 King Stanisław August Poniatowski established his Commission on National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), the world's first state mini ...

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Poland, Poland - Name, Poland - History, Poland - Politics, Poland - Geography, Poland - Principal Cities, Poland - Administrative division, Poland - Economy, Poland - Science technology and education, Poland - Telecommunication and IT, Poland - Transportation, Poland - Tourism and holidays, Poland - Demographics, Poland - Culture, Poland - UNESCO World Heritage in Poland, Poland - International rankings

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A second partition of Poland was made July 17, 1793, Russia taking a large part of White Russia, half of Volhynia, all of Podolia, and the part of the Ukraine which had previously been retained by Poland, and Prussians taking Great Poland (Poznan). A general uprising (Kosciuszko Uprising) of the citizens of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1794. Tadeusz Kosciuszko was made its leader and dictator, and succeeded in driving the Russians out of Warsaw. Dissensions, however, arose among the Poles, and the Russians and Prussian ...

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Jewish Polish history during the 1700s, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - Accession of the Saxon dynasty, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - The Rise of Hasidism, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - First partition, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - The second and third partitions

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After this point, the Cossack nation of the Zaporozhian Host was divided into two semiautonomous republics of Muscovy: the Hetmanate on the Dnieper's left bank, and the more independent Zaporozhia to the south. A Cossack organization was also established in the Muscovite colony of Sloboda Ukraine. These organizations gradually lost their independence, and were abolished by Catherine II by the late 18th century. The Hemanate became the governorship of Little Russia, and Sloboda Ukraine the Kharkiv province. After having its capital, the Sich, destroyed and rel ...

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History of the Cossacks, History of the Cossacks - Early Cossack history, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of the Cossacks - Ukraine and Muscovy, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in Imperial Russia, History of the Cossacks - The Russian Revolution and Cossacks, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in World War II, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in Russia today, History of the Cossacks - External articles

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Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Persecutions of 1385-1492. As a result of the marriage of Wladislaus II to Jadwiga, daughter of Louis I of Hungary, Lithuania was united with the kingdom of Poland. Under his rule the first extensive persecutions of the Jews in Poland were commenced, and the king did not act to stop these events. It was said that the Jews of Poznań had induced a poor Christian woman to steal from the Dominican order "three hosts", which they "desecrated", and that when the hosts began to ...

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Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Early period: 966-1385, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Early history, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Early persecutions: 1266-1279, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Prosperity in a Reunited Poland: 1320-1385, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The Jagiellon era: 1385-1572, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Persecutions of 1385-1492, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Influx of Jews fleeing persecution: 1492-1548, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Golden Age Under Sigismund and Sigusmund II, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572-1795, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Jewish learning and culture during the early Polish-Lithuanian Commonweath, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The beginning of decline, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Cossacks' Uprising

Read more here: » Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s: Encyclopedia II - Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The Jagiellon era: 1385-1572

Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Jewish learning and culture during the early Polish-Lithuanian Commonweath. Yəšiḇoṯ were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as gymnasia, and their rabbi-principals as rectors. Important yeshivots existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the sixteenth century. In 1530 a Hebrew Pentateuch (Torah) was printed ...

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Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Early period: 966-1385, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Early history, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Early persecutions: 1266-1279, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Prosperity in a Reunited Poland: 1320-1385, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The Jagiellon era: 1385-1572, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Persecutions of 1385-1492, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Influx of Jews fleeing persecution: 1492-1548, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Golden Age Under Sigismund and Sigusmund II, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572-1795, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Jewish learning and culture during the early Polish-Lithuanian Commonweath, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The beginning of decline, Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - Cossacks' Uprising

Read more here: » Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s: Encyclopedia II - Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572-1795

The Polish landscape consists almost entirely of the lowlands of the North European Plain, at an average height of 173 metres (568 ft), though the Sudetes (including the Karkonosze) and the Carpathian Mountains (including the Tatra mountains, where one also finds Poland's highest point, Rysy, at 2,499 m [8,199 ft]) form the southern border. Several large rivers cross the plains; for instance, the Vistula (Wisła), Oder (Odra), Warta the (Western) Bug. Poland also contains over 9,300 lakes, predominantly in the north of the coun ...

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Poland, Poland - Name, Poland - History, Poland - Politics, Poland - Geography, Poland - Principal Cities, Poland - Administrative division, Poland - Economy, Poland - Science technology and education, Poland - Telecommunication and IT, Poland - Transportation, Poland - Tourism and holidays, Poland - Demographics, Poland - Culture, Poland - UNESCO World Heritage in Poland, Poland - International rankings

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Cossacks have long appealed to romantics as idealizing freedom and resistance to external authority, and their military exploits against enemies of the Russian people have contributed to this favourable image. For others they have been a symbol of repression because of their role in suppressing popular uprisings in the Russian Empire, as well as their assaults against Jews. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, many have begun seeing Cossacks as defenders of Russian sovereignty and traditional culture. Literary reflections of Cossack culture abound in Russian literature, particularly in the works ...

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Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

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A 1611 Constitution (amended 1633 and 1635) prescribed many officials. Exceptions to the rule, however, were the rule; Sejm rules were treated as mere suggestions. Thus Belz Voivodship had only 4 of the 15 prescribed dignitaries; most northern voivodships had about 5; and in Wołyń and Bracław Voivodships the hierarchical order was almost reversed. Each province or district had its own set of officials — a list of provinces may be foun ...

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Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Senatorial offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - List of Senatorial offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Central non-Senat-related offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Court offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - List of court offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Military offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - List of military offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - District offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Crown, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Lithuania, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Prussia, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Borough and judicial offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - List of borough and judicial offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Town and village offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - List of town and village offices, Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Other

Read more here: » Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Encyclopedia II - Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - District offices