szlachta

History of the Jews in Poland - Independence and Polish Jews. Jews also played a role in the fight for independence in 1918, some joining Józef Piłsudski, while many other communities decided to remain neutral in the fight for a Polish state. In the wake of World War I and the ensuing conflicts that engulfed Eastern Europe — the Russian Civil War, Polish-Ukrainian War, and Polish-Soviet War — many pogroms were launched against the Jews by all sides. As a substantial n ...

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History of the Jews in Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history: 966–1385, History of the Jews in Poland - The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505, History of the Jews in Poland - Center of the Jewish world: 1505–72, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795, History of the Jews in Poland - The Warsaw Confederation, History of the Jews in Poland - Increasing isolation, History of the Jews in Poland - The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge, History of the Jews in Poland - Decline under the Saxon Dynasty, History of the Jews in Poland - The Partitions, History of the Jews in Poland - The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish learning, History of the Jews in Poland - The rise of Hasidism, History of the Jews in Poland - Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire 1795–1918, History of the Jews in Poland - Pogroms, History of the Jews in Poland - Haskalah and Halakha, History of the Jews in Poland - Politics in Polish Territory, History of the Jews in Poland - Interwar period 1918–39, History of the Jews in Poland - Independence and Polish Jews, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish and Polish culture, History of the Jews in Poland - Growing anti-Semitism, History of the Jews in Poland - WWII and the destruction of Polish Jewry 1939–45, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish September campaign, History of the Jews in Poland - Soviet-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - The Holocaust: German-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Communist rule: 1945–89, History of the Jews in Poland - Postwar, History of the Jews in Poland - 1967–1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Since 1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Notes

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History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish September campaign. Main article: Polish September Campaign During the Polish September Campaign of 1939, some 120,000 Polish citizens of Jewish descent took part in battles with the Germans and the Soviets as members of the Polish Armed Forces. It is estimated that during the entirety of World War II as many as 32,216 Jewish soldiers and officers died and 61,000 were taken prisoner by the Germans; the majority did not survive. The soldiers and ...

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History of the Jews in Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history: 966–1385, History of the Jews in Poland - The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505, History of the Jews in Poland - Center of the Jewish world: 1505–72, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795, History of the Jews in Poland - The Warsaw Confederation, History of the Jews in Poland - Increasing isolation, History of the Jews in Poland - The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge, History of the Jews in Poland - Decline under the Saxon Dynasty, History of the Jews in Poland - The Partitions, History of the Jews in Poland - The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish learning, History of the Jews in Poland - The rise of Hasidism, History of the Jews in Poland - Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire 1795–1918, History of the Jews in Poland - Pogroms, History of the Jews in Poland - Haskalah and Halakha, History of the Jews in Poland - Politics in Polish Territory, History of the Jews in Poland - Interwar period 1918–39, History of the Jews in Poland - Independence and Polish Jews, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish and Polish culture, History of the Jews in Poland - Growing anti-Semitism, History of the Jews in Poland - WWII and the destruction of Polish Jewry 1939–45, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish September campaign, History of the Jews in Poland - Soviet-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - The Holocaust: German-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Communist rule: 1945–89, History of the Jews in Poland - Postwar, History of the Jews in Poland - 1967–1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Since 1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Notes

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Main articles: History of Poland (1385-1569), Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons The personal union with the grand duchy of Lithuania to the north-east paved the way for the extension of Polish power far to the east and the creation (Union of Lublin, 1569) of a unified Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita) stretching from the Baltic and the Carpathians to present-day Belarus and ...

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History of Poland, History of Poland - Early history of Poland 966-1385, History of Poland - The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795, History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918, History of Poland - Independence Regained 1918-1939, History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945, History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989, History of Poland - Martial law, History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present

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The word antisemitic (antisemitisch in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase "antisemitic prejudices" (German: "antisemitische Vorurteile"). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize Ernest Renan's ideas about how "Semitic races" were inferior to "Aryan races." These pseudo-scientific theories had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as ...

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Anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - Etymology and usage, Anti-Semitism - Definitions of the term, Anti-Semitism - Earliest Antisemitism, Anti-Semitism - Religious Antisemitism, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Judaism in the New Testament, Anti-Semitism - Early Christianity, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages, Anti-Semitism - Disabilities and Restrictions, Anti-Semitism - The Crusades, Anti-Semitism - The expulsions from England France Germany and Spain, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Judaism and the Reformation, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism in 19th and 20th century Catholicism, Anti-Semitism - Passion plays, Anti-Semitism - Racial anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - The rise of racial anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - Elites and the use of Anti-semitism, Anti-Semitism - Dreyfus Affair, Anti-Semitism - Pogroms, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Jewish Legislation, Anti-Semitism - The Holocaust and Holocaust Denial, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism and the Muslim world, Anti-Semitism - Anti-semitism and specific countries, Anti-Semitism - United States, Anti-Semitism - Europe, Anti-Semitism - Asia, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism, Anti-Semitism - New anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism in the 21st century

Read more here: » Anti-Semitism: Encyclopedia II - Anti-Semitism - Etymology and usage

On 27 July 1990, Belarus declared its national sovereignty, a key step toward independence from the Soviet Union. The BSSR was formally renamed the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991. Around that time, Stanislav Shushkevich became the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus. Shushkevich, along with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine met on December 8, 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha, to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union an ...

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History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

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The earliest occurrence of antisemitism has received much investigation. Peter Schafer has argued that antisemitism was first spread by "the Greek retelling of ancient Egyptian prejudices". In view of the anti-Jewish writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho, Schafer suggests that anti-Semitism may have emerged "in Egypt alone". The hostility commonly faced by Jews in the Diaspora has been extensively described by John M. G. Barclay. The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in Flaccu ...

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Anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - Etymology and usage, Anti-Semitism - Definitions of the term, Anti-Semitism - Earliest Antisemitism, Anti-Semitism - Religious Antisemitism, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Judaism in the New Testament, Anti-Semitism - Early Christianity, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages, Anti-Semitism - Disabilities and Restrictions, Anti-Semitism - The Crusades, Anti-Semitism - The expulsions from England France Germany and Spain, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Judaism and the Reformation, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism in 19th and 20th century Catholicism, Anti-Semitism - Passion plays, Anti-Semitism - Racial anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - The rise of racial anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - Elites and the use of Anti-semitism, Anti-Semitism - Dreyfus Affair, Anti-Semitism - Pogroms, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Jewish Legislation, Anti-Semitism - The Holocaust and Holocaust Denial, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism and the Muslim world, Anti-Semitism - Anti-semitism and specific countries, Anti-Semitism - United States, Anti-Semitism - Europe, Anti-Semitism - Asia, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism, Anti-Semitism - New anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism in the 21st century

Read more here: » Anti-Semitism: Encyclopedia II - Anti-Semitism - Earliest Antisemitism

The Lublin Union of 1569 constituted the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and the largest multinational empire in Europe. While Ukraine and Podlasia became subject to the Polish Crown, Belarus was still regarded as part of Lithuania. The new polity was dominated by much more densely populated Poland, which had 134 representatives in the Sejm as compared to 46 representatives of the Grand Duchy. However the Grand Duchy retained much autonomy, and was governed by a separate code of laws called the Li ...

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History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

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Under Russian administration, the territory of Belarus was divided into the guberniyas of Minsk, Vitebsk, Mogilyov, and Hrodno. Belarusians were active in guerrilla movement against Napoleon's occupation and did their best to annihilate the remains of the Grande Armée when it crossed the Berezina River in November 1812[citation needed]. With Napoleon's defeat, Belarus again became a part of Imperial Russia and its guberniyas constituted part of the Northwestern Krai. The anti-Russian uprisings of the gentry[8]See also:

History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

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History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR. Main articles: Belarus National Republic and Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic World War I was the short period when Belarusian culture started to flourish. German administration allowed schools with Belarusian language, previously banned in Russia; a number of Belarusian schools were created until 1919 when they were banned again by Polish military administration. At the end of World War I, when Belarus ...

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History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

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The decade from the Cossacks' uprising until after the Swedish war (1648-1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish-Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only, while the masses remained in ignorance and superstition. The intellectual activity even of the rabbis fell to a low ...

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Jewish Polish history during the 1700s, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - Accession of the Saxon dynasty, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - The Rise of Hasidism, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - First partition, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - The second and third partitions

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Disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the eighteenth century, from the accession to the throne of its last king, Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski (1764-1795). This state of affairs was due to the haughty demeanor of the nobility toward the lower classes. The necessity for reform was recognized by the king and by many of the Commonwealth citizens; but Poland was already in the grasp of Russia, and little could be done in this direction. Jewish affairs were sadly neglected, the government seeking merely the ...

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Jewish Polish history during the 1700s, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - Accession of the Saxon dynasty, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - The Rise of Hasidism, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - First partition, Jewish Polish history during the 1700s - The second and third partitions

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This is the list of important szlachta families. See individual family articles for the list of its important members. Note that all names are given in singular form first, then in plural in parenthesis. Famous Magnates (higher nobility): families who have accumulated great wealth and political power and were equal only to few others, the top magnates who usually preserved their power for several centuries. Branicki (Braniccy) Chodkiewicz (Chodkiewiczowie) Czartoryski (Czartoryscy) Działyński ...

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List of szlachta, List of szlachta - By family, List of szlachta - By date of birth, List of szlachta - 14th century, List of szlachta - 15th century, List of szlachta - 16th century, List of szlachta - 17th century, List of szlachta - 18th century, List of szlachta - 19th century, List of szlachta - 20th century

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Frank's imprisonment lasted thirteen years, yet it only tended to increase his influence with the sect by surrounding him with the aura of martyrdom. Many of the Frankists established themselves near Czestochowa, and kept up constant communication with the "holy master," often gaining access to the fortress. Frank inspired his followers by mystical speeches and epistles, in which he stated that salvation could be gained only through the "religion of Edom," or "dat" (Hebrew), "law", by which was meant a strange mixture of Christian and Shabbe ...

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Jacob Frank, Jacob Frank - Historical background, Jacob Frank - Social-economic conditions, Jacob Frank - Early life of Frank, Jacob Frank - The anti-Talmudists, Jacob Frank - Declaration of being a succesor to Shabbethai Zevi, Jacob Frank - Baptism of the Frankists, Jacob Frank - Frank in prison

Read more here: » Jacob Frank: Encyclopedia II - Jacob Frank - Frank in prison

Sejmiks arose from the 1454 Nieszawa Statutes, granted to the szlachta by King Casimir IV the Jagiellonian. In the first third of the 15th century general sejmiks were fist held, which gave rise in 1493 to the national Sejm. In the 16th century the leading force at sejmiks was the middle nobility; later this passed to the magnates (magnaci). Lithuanian Sejmiks in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were much more dominated by the magnates then the Crown (Poland proper) ones. Sejmiks attained a peak of importance at the turn of the 17t ...

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Sejmik, Sejmik - History, Sejmik - Features

Read more here: » Sejmik: Encyclopedia II - Sejmik - History

The history of Polish heraldry is an integral part of the history of the szlachta, the Polish nobility. Unlike in western Europe, the Polish szlachta did not emerge from the class of knights under chivalry, but rather from a Slavic class of free warriors. These were often hired by princes to form guard units (Polish drużyna) and were eventually paid in land. Only a small number of szlachta families or clans (Polish rody) can be traced all the way back to the traditional clan system. Most szlachta since at ...

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Polish heraldry, Polish heraldry - History, Polish heraldry - Peculiarities, Polish heraldry - Shield, Polish heraldry - Tinctures, Polish heraldry - Bibliography and Listings of Coats of Arms

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Poland's official name in Polish is Rzeczpospolita Polska. The names of the country, Polska, and of the nationality, the Poles, are of Slavic origin. Their name derives from the tribal name Polanie - people living around Lake Gopło - the cradle of Poland mentioned as Glopeani having 400 strongholds circa 845 (Bavarian Geographer). Common opinion holds that the name Polska comes from the Slavic Polanie tribe who established the Polish state in the 10th century (Greater Poland). The conventiona ...

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Poland, Poland - Name, Poland - History, Poland - Politics, Poland - Geography, Poland - Principal Cities, Poland - Administrative division, Poland - Economy, Poland - Science technology and education, Poland - Telecommunication and IT, Poland - Transportation, Poland - Tourism and holidays, Poland - Demographics, Poland - Culture, Poland - UNESCO World Heritage in Poland, Poland - International rankings

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When the war broke out the Cossacks found themselves on both sides of the conflict. Most fought for the Soviet Union; however, some chose to settle old scores by collaborating with the Germans, especially after the Soviet Union's initial series of defeats, including the loss of much of the army of Ivan Kononov, a former Soviet major who defected to the Germans on the first day of war with some of his 436th regiment, and served around the German-occupied city of ...

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History of the Cossacks, History of the Cossacks - Early Cossack history, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of the Cossacks - Ukraine and Muscovy, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in Imperial Russia, History of the Cossacks - The Russian Revolution and Cossacks, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in World War II, History of the Cossacks - Cossacks in Russia today, History of the Cossacks - External articles

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The Potockis distilled spirits at their famous Łancut estate in the country's oldest distillery. The Potockis are better known for their contribution to Poland's military, political, and cultural history over six centuries, however, today their name is most recognized by their continued contribution to vodka, Potocki Wódka. When the Łancut estate passed to the Potocki family in 1816, it contained Poland's oldest distillery, founded in 1784. It was extensively deve ...

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Potocki, Potocki - History, Potocki - Coat of Arms and Motto, Potocki - Members, Potocki - Potockis and Vodka, Potocki - Reference

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Some countries extend "honorary citizenship" to those whom they consider to be especially admirable or worthy of the distinction. By Act of Congress and presidential assent, honorary United States citizenship has been awarded to: British statesman Sir Winston Churchill (1963) Swedish humanitarian and diplomat Raoul Wallenberg (1981) Pennsylvania founder William Penn and his wife Hannah Callowhill Penn (1984) Macedonian (To Albanian Parents)-born Catholic nun and humanitarian Mother Teresa (1996) French nobleman and American Revolutiona ...

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Citizenship, Citizenship - Subnational citizenship, Citizenship - Supranational citizenship, Citizenship - European Union EU citizenship, Citizenship - Commonwealth citizenship, Citizenship - Honorary citizenship, Citizenship - Historical citizenship

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French-speaking countries have many similarities to English-speaking ones in the way family names are used. In France and the Canadian province of Quebec, name change upon marriage shit is no longer automatic. Those who wish to change their name upon marriage must follow the same legal procedure as would be used under any other circumstance. In France, until January 1, 2005, children were required by law to take the surname of their father. From this date, article 311-21 of the French Civil code permits parents to give their children ...

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Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia

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In early times, Cossack tribes were commanded by an ataman (later called hetman). He was elected by the tribe members at a Cossack rada, as were the other important tribe officials: the judge, the scribe, the lesser officials, and even the clergy. The ataman's symbol of power was a ceremonial mace, called bulava. The ataman had executive powers and at time of war he was the supreme commander in the field. Legislative power was given to the Tribal Assembly (Rada). The senior officers were called starshyna. In the absence of written laws, the Cossacks were governed by the ...

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Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Origins, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

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Cossacks have long appealed to romantics as idealizing freedom and resistance to external authority, and their military exploits against enemies of the Russian people have contributed to this favourable image. For others they have been a symbol of repression because of their role in suppressing popular uprisings in the Russian Empire, as well as their assaults against Jews. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, many have begun seeing Cossacks as defenders of Russian sovereignty and traditional culture. Literary reflections of Cossack culture abound in Russian literature, particularly in the works ...

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Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Origins, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

Read more here: » Cossack: Encyclopedia II - Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks