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szlachta | A Wisdom Archive on szlachta | | szlachta A selection of articles related to szlachta | |
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szlachta, Szlachta, Szlachta - History, Szlachta - Szlachta culture, Szlachta - Etymology, Szlachta - Heraldry, Szlachta - Origins, Szlachta - Religious beliefs, Szlachta - Sarmatism, Szlachta - Szlachta rise to power, Szlachta - Transformation into aristocracy, History of Poland, List of <i>szlachta</i>, Legitimization of szlachta in Congress Poland (<i>legitymacja szlachectwa</i>), Warsaw Confederation
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| ARTICLES RELATED TO szlachta | | | |  szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-presentMain article: History of Poland (1989-present), Third Polish Republic
A shock therapy program during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most robust in Central Europe.
Poland joined NATO on May 27, 1999 and the European Union on May 1, 2004.
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See also:History of Poland, History of Poland - Early history of Poland 966-1385, History of Poland - The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795, History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918, History of Poland - Independence Regained 1918-1939, History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945, History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989, History of Poland - Martial law, History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present Read more here: » History of Poland: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The Napoleonic period At the turn of the 19th century, Europe had begun to feel the impact of momentous political and intellectual movements that, among their other effects, would keep the "Polish Question" on the agenda of international issues needing resolution. Most immediately, Napoleon Bonaparte had established a new empire in France in 1804 following that country's revolution. Napoleon's attempts to build and expand his empire kept Europe at war for the next decade and brought him into conflict with the same east European powers that had beleaguered Poland ...
See also:History of Poland 1795–1918, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The Napoleonic period, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The impact of nationalism and romanticism, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The era of national insurrections, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The time of Organic Work, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Social and political transformation, History of Poland 1795–1918 - World War I, History of Poland 1795–1918 - War and the Polish lands, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Recovery of statehood, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Reference Read more here: » History of Poland 1795–1918: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The Napoleonic period |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The impact of nationalism and romanticism The intellectual and artistic climate of the early nineteenth century further stimulated the growth of Polish demands for self-government. During these decades, modern nationalism took shape and rapidly developed a massive following throughout the continent, becoming the most dynamic and appealing political doctrine of its time. By stressing the value and dignity of native cultures and languages, nationalism offered a rationale for ethnic loyalty and resistance to assimilation. The associated principle of the natio ...
See also:History of Poland 1795–1918, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The Napoleonic period, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The impact of nationalism and romanticism, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The era of national insurrections, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The time of Organic Work, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Social and political transformation, History of Poland 1795–1918 - World War I, History of Poland 1795–1918 - War and the Polish lands, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Recovery of statehood, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Reference Read more here: » History of Poland 1795–1918: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The impact of nationalism and romanticism |
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| | | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Mead - Varieties of mead Mead can have a wide range of flavors, depending on the source of the honey, additives called "adjuncts" or "gruit" (including fruit and spices), yeast employed during fermentation, and aging procedure. Mead can be difficult to find commercially, though some producers have been successful marketing it.
Some meads retain some measure of the sweetness of the original honey, and some can even be considered as dessert wines. Drier meads are also available, and some producers offer sparkling meads, which (like champagne) can make for a del ...
See also:Mead, Mead - History of mead, Mead - Varieties of mead, Mead - Brands, Mead - Reference Read more here: » Mead: Encyclopedia II - Mead - Varieties of mead |
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| | | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The era of national insurrections For several decades, the Polish national movement gave priority to the immediate restoration of independence, a drive that found expression in a series of armed rebellions. The insurgencies arose mainly in the Russian zone of partition to the east, about three-quarters of which was formerly Polish territory. After the Congress of Vienna, Russia had organized its Polish lands as the Congress Kingdom of Poland, granting it a quite liberal constitution, its own army, and limited autonomy within the tsarist empire. In the 1820s, however, Russian ...
See also:History of Poland 1795–1918, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The Napoleonic period, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The impact of nationalism and romanticism, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The era of national insurrections, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The time of Organic Work, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Social and political transformation, History of Poland 1795–1918 - World War I, History of Poland 1795–1918 - War and the Polish lands, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Recovery of statehood, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Reference Read more here: » History of Poland 1795–1918: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The era of national insurrections |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The time of Organic Work Increasing oppression at Russian hands after failed national uprisings finally convinced Polish leaders that the recent insurrection was premature at best and perhaps fundamentally misguided and counterproductive. During the decades that followed the January Insurrection, Poles largely forsook the goal of immediate independence and turned instead to fortifying the nation through the subtler means of education, economic development, and modernization. This approach took the name Organic Work for its philosophy of strengthening Polish society ...
See also:History of Poland 1795–1918, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The Napoleonic period, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The impact of nationalism and romanticism, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The era of national insurrections, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The time of Organic Work, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Social and political transformation, History of Poland 1795–1918 - World War I, History of Poland 1795–1918 - War and the Polish lands, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Recovery of statehood, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Reference Read more here: » History of Poland 1795–1918: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - The time of Organic Work |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - Social and political transformation Throughout the late nineteenth century, profound social and economic forces operated on the Polish lands, giving them a more modern aspect and altering traditional patterns of life. Especially in Russian Poland and the Silesian regions under German control, mining and manufacturing started on a large scale. This development sped the process of urbanization, and the emergence of capitalism began to reduce the relative importance of the landed aristocracy in Polish society. A considerable segment of the peasantry abandoned the overburdened lan ...
See also:History of Poland 1795–1918, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The Napoleonic period, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The impact of nationalism and romanticism, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The era of national insurrections, History of Poland 1795–1918 - The time of Organic Work, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Social and political transformation, History of Poland 1795–1918 - World War I, History of Poland 1795–1918 - War and the Polish lands, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Recovery of statehood, History of Poland 1795–1918 - Reference Read more here: » History of Poland 1795–1918: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1795–1918 - Social and political transformation |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918 Main articles: History of Poland (1795-1918), Kingdom of Galicia, Duchy of Warsaw, Congress Kingdom, Free City of Kraków, Grand Duchy of Poznań, Regency Kingdom
Polish independence ended in a series of partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) undertaken by Russia, Prussia and Austria, with Russia gaining most of the Commonwealth's territory including nearly all of the former Lithuania (except Podlasie and lands West from Niemen river), Volhynia and Ukraine. Austria gained the populous southern region henceforth named Galicia–Lodome ...
See also:History of Poland, History of Poland - Early history of Poland 966-1385, History of Poland - The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795, History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918, History of Poland - Independence Regained 1918-1939, History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945, History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989, History of Poland - Martial law, History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present Read more here: » History of Poland: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918 |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795 Main articles: History of Poland (1569-1795), Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, following upon the Union of Lublin, became an interesting counterpoint to the absolute monarchies gaining power in Europe. It's quasi-democratic political system of Golden Liberty, albeit limited to nobility (szlachta) was mostly unprecedented in the history of Europe.
However the series of power struggles between the lesser nobility, the higher nobility (magnates) and elected kings undermined citizensh ...
See also:History of Poland, History of Poland - Early history of Poland 966-1385, History of Poland - The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795, History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918, History of Poland - Independence Regained 1918-1939, History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945, History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989, History of Poland - Martial law, History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present Read more here: » History of Poland: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795 |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames Until a few hundred years ago, Ashkenazim (Jews from Northern and Eastern Europe) followed no tradition of surnames, but used patronymics within the synagogue, and matronymics in other venues. For example, a boy named Joseph of a father named Isaac would be called to the Torah as Joseph ben Isaac. That same boy of a mother named Rachel would be known in business as Joseph ben Rachel. A male used the He ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Romania In Romania family names traditionally have an English-like usage: a child inherits his father's family name, and a wife takes her husband's last name. There are however exceptions and social pressure to follow this tradition is not particularly strong in most families.
Until the XIX century the names were primarily of the form "name father's name grandfather's name". The few exceptions are usually famous people or the nobility (boyars). The name reform introduced around 1850, had the names changed to a western style, most likely imported from France: ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Romania |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - India and Indonesia Similar patronymic customs exist in some parts of India and Indonesia. A patronymic system is often followed in southern regions of India with a wife or child taking the name of the husband or father. Village names are also often used. However in north India the family name or last name is crucial as it links a person to their caste and clan.
In the Sikh religion, men and women are accorded equality of status which ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - India and Indonesia |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea In most of Ethiopia and Eritrea, a patronymic custom exists. Children are given the father's exact first name as their surname.
Common Tigrinya names include Gebrezghi (worker of God), Hailesellasie (Power of the Trinity), Hailemariam (Power of the Virgin Mary), Desta (joy), Abraha (bright), Araya (example), Berhane (Light) , Hagos (happiness), Gebremichael (work of Michael), Demoz (salary meaning gift) , Tewoldeberhan (son of light)
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See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Poland In Poland and most of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the surnames first appeared in late Middle Ages. Initially their purpose was to denote the differences between various people living in the same town or village and bearing the same name. The conventions used were very similar to English family names: initially names were simple nouns denoting the occupation (Karczmarz - Innkeeper, Kowal - Blacksmith, Bednarczyk - Young Cooper), descent (patronymic names like Szczepaniak - Son of Szczepan, Józefski - ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Poland |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Russia A full Russian name consists of personal (given) name, patronymic, and family name (surname).
Probably the majority of Russian family names originated from patronymics, that is, father's name in genitive case:
name + suffix -ov(a) or -ev(a)
(it should be noted, though, that contemporaty patronymics have additional suffixes -ich and -na for masculine and feminine, respectively).
Here is, for example, the proverbial triad of most common Russian surnames:
Ivanov (son of Ivan),
Petrov (son of Petr),
Sid ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Russia |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Italy See also: Italian surnames category.
Italian names are mostly derived from Latin, but since Italy has been often ruled by foreigners, many surnames are of Spanish, French, German, Norman or Swiss origin (and thus often Romance language names). Beginning in the 14th century, it became necessary to add a second name to distinguish between individuals with the same surname.
Italian surnames are especially easy to recognize because most end in a vowel—like nearly all words in Standard Italian—and many of them have been derived from descriptive nicknames.
Italian surnam ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Italy |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas In medieval times, a patronymic system similar to the one still used in Iceland emerged. For example, Álvaro son of Rodrigo would be named Álvaro Rodríguez. His son Juan would not be named Juan Rodríguez, but Juan Álvarez. Over time many of these patronymics became family names and are some of the most common names in the Spanish-speaking world. Other sources of surnames are personal appearance o ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - The Philippines Until the middle of the 19th century, there was no standardization of surnames in the Philippines. There were native Filipinos without surnames, others whose surnames deliberately did not match that of their families, as well as those who took certain surnames simply because they had a certain prestige, usually ones dealing with the Roman Catholic religion, such as de los Santos and de la Cruz.
In 1849, the Spanish governor Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa decreed an end to these arbitrary practices, the result of which was t ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - The Philippines |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Scandinavia In Scandinavia family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic. In Sweden, the patronymic ending is -sson, e.g. Karlsson ("Karl's son"). In Denmark and Norway, the corresponding ending is -sen, as in Karlsen. Names ending with dotter/datter (daughter), such as Olofsdotter, are rare but occurring, and only apply to females. Today, the patronymic names are passed on similarly to family names in other Western countries, and a person's father doesn't have to be called ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - Scandinavia |
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| | | | | szlachta: Encyclopedia II - Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam In Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Hungarian cultures, the family name is placed before the given names. So the terms "first name" and "last name" are potentially confusing and should be avoided, as they do not in this case denote the given and family names respectively.
Some Chinese add an English given name in front of their Chinese name, e.g. Martin LEE Chu-ming. In addition, many Chinese Americans have an English first name which is commonly used and a Chinese name which is used as a middle name, e.g. Mar ...
See also:Family name, Family name - English-speaking countries, Family name - French-speaking countries, Family name - Ireland, Family name - Irish surname prefixes, Family name - Italy, Family name - Greece, Family name - Pakistan, Family name - Portugal and Brazil, Family name - Spain and Hispanic areas, Family name - The Philippines, Family name - Iceland, Family name - Finland, Family name - Scandinavia, Family name - The Netherlands, Family name - Belgium, Family name - Russia, Family name - Poland, Family name - Ashkenazi Jewish surnames, Family name - Romania, Family name - India and Indonesia, Family name - Ethiopia/Eritrea, Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam, Family name - Mongolia Read more here: » Family name: Encyclopedia II - Family name - China Hungary Japan Korea and Vietnam |
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