szlachta

In recent years, some intergovernmental organisations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Two examples are given below, of citizenship in the European Union, and also of citizenship within the British Commonwealth. As of 2005, citizenship at this level is a secondary ...

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Citizenship, Citizenship - Subnational citizenship, Citizenship - Supranational citizenship, Citizenship - European Union EU citizenship, Citizenship - Commonwealth citizenship, Citizenship - Honorary citizenship, Citizenship - Historical citizenship

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Historian Jacob Rader Marcus summarizes the situation as follows: "In 1654 neighboring Russia turned against Poland, a year later the Swedes poured in from the north, and all these groups, including the native Poles, ravaged and massacred defenseless Jewish victims throughout the land" (The Jew in the Medieval World, 1896). The Eyewitness Chronicle detailes: "Wherever they found the szlachta, royal officials or Jews, they [Cossacks] killed them all, sparing neither women nor chi ...

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Khmelnytskyi Uprising, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - Background, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - Chmielnicki's role, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - The uprising, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - Jews and the Uprising, Khmelnytskyi Uprising - The aftermath

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Komisja Edukacji Narodowej - The Beginning. The commission was formally created on October 14, 1773. Its main organiser and chief figure was a Catholic priest Hugo Kołłątaj. Initially the body was formed of 4 senators and 4 members of Sejm, half of them representing the eastern voivodships of Poland (former Grand Duchy of Lithuania). The first head of the KEN was Prince Bishop Michał Jerzy Poniatowski. Although other members were mostly magnate politicians, the factual creators of the body were prominent writ ...

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Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, Komisja Edukacji Narodowej - History, Komisja Edukacji Narodowej - The Beginning, Komisja Edukacji Narodowej - Early period 1773-1780, Komisja Edukacji Narodowej - Second phase 1781-1788, Komisja Edukacji Narodowej - Third phase 1788-1794, Komisja Edukacji Narodowej - Effects

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The native land of the Russian Cossacks is defined by a line of the Russian town-fortresses located on the border with the steppe and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practising various trades and crafts. These people, constantly facing the Tatar warriors on the steppe frontier, received the Turkic name "cossacks" which was then extended to other free people in northern Russia. The ...

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Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

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The history of mead goes back more than 8,000 years. The oldest known meads were created on the Island of Crete; fermented honey was seen as an entheogen and bees were sacred to Demeter. Wine had not yet been created. Mead was the drink of the Age of Gold, and the word for drunk in classical Greek remained "honey-intoxicated." (Kerenyi 1976 pp 35ff). Mead was once very popular in Northern Europe, often produced by monks in monasteries in areas where grapes could not be grown. It faded in popularity, however, once wine imports became e ...

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Mead, Mead - History of mead, Mead - Varieties of mead, Mead - Brands, Mead - Reference

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Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Background. The May 3rd Constitution was a response to the increasingly perilous situation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, only a century and a half earlier a major European power and indeed the largest state on the continent. Already two centuries before the May 3rd Constitution, King Zygmunt III's court preacher, the Jesuit Piotr Skarga, had famously condemned the individual and collective weaknesses of the Commonwealth's citizens. Likewise, in the same period, writers ...

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Polish Constitution of May 3 1791, Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - History, Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Background, Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Drafting and Adoption, Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - The fall, Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Legacy, Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Features, Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Notes

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The spread of Frank's messianic movement (1760-1770) occurred in the period following the killing of the Jews in the days of Bohdan Chmielnicki. Hundreds of ruined communities, in which almost every family mourned its martyred dead, awaited aid from Heaven. Some were inclined to see in the Ukraine massacres pre-Messianic sufferings, and in Sabbatai Zevi the promised messiah. Zevi's fall and subsequent conversion to Islam estranged him from most of his followers, but among the more uncultured portion of the Jewish people the belief in the mystic ...

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Jacob Frank, Jacob Frank - Historical background, Jacob Frank - Social-economic conditions, Jacob Frank - Early life of Frank, Jacob Frank - The anti-Talmudists, Jacob Frank - Declaration of being a succesor to Shabbethai Zevi, Jacob Frank - Baptism of the Frankists, Jacob Frank - Frank in prison

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Józef Piłsudski - Piłsudski's early life. Born in the village of Zułów (Zalavas, in today's Lithuania) into an impoverished Polish szlachta (noble) family, he attended school in Vilnius. In 1885 he studied medicine at Kharkov, in Ukraine, but was suspended in 1886 as politically suspect. In March 1887 he was arrested by Tsarist authorities on a false charge of plotting to assassinate Tsar Alexander III and was exiled for five years to eastern Siberia. His elder brother, Bronisław Piłsudski, who had ...

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Józef Piłsudski, Józef Piłsudski - Biography, Józef Piłsudski - Piłsudski's early life, Józef Piłsudski - First World War, Józef Piłsudski - Polish-Soviet War, Józef Piłsudski - Rise to Power: the Benevolent Dictator, Józef Piłsudski - Tribute, Józef Piłsudski - Quotes

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Commonwealth - United States. Four states in the United States officially designate themselves "commonwealths": Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. See Commonwealth or State? "Commonwealth" is also used in the U.S. to describe the political relationship between the United States and the overseas unincorporated territories of Puerto Rico and of the Northern Marianas (See also:

Commonwealth, Commonwealth - Definition and linguistics, Commonwealth - International or Multinational, Commonwealth - Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth - Commonwealth of Independent States, Commonwealth - National, Commonwealth - Great Britain, Commonwealth - Australia, Commonwealth - Dominica, Commonwealth - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Commonwealth of Poland, Commonwealth - Other states that use the name Commonwealth, Commonwealth - Subnational, Commonwealth - United States, Commonwealth - Fictional

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The original phrase "common wealth" or "the common weal" is a calque translation of the Latin term res publica ('public matters'), from which the word republic comes, which was itself used as a synonym for the greek politeia as well as for the republican (i.e. non-monarchical) Roman constitution (in legal theory still in force during the empire, see Principate). The English noun Commonwealth dates originally from the fifteenth century and in different contexts indicates: a political unit ...

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Commonwealth, Commonwealth - Definition and linguistics, Commonwealth - International or Multinational, Commonwealth - Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth - Commonwealth of Independent States, Commonwealth - National, Commonwealth - Great Britain, Commonwealth - Australia, Commonwealth - Dominica, Commonwealth - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Commonwealth of Poland, Commonwealth - Other states that use the name Commonwealth, Commonwealth - Subnational, Commonwealth - United States, Commonwealth - Fictional

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Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Background. The May 3rd Constitution was a response to the increasingly perilous situation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, only a century and a half earlier a major European power and indeed the largest state on the continent. Already two centuries before the May 3rd Constitution, King Zygmunt III's court preacher, the Jesuit Piotr Skarga, had famously condemned the individual and collective weaknesses of the Commonwealth's citizens. Likewise, in the same period, writer ...

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Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - History, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Background, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Drafting and Adoption, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - The fall, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Legacy, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Features, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Notes

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King Stanisław August described the May 3rd Constitution, according to a contemporary account, as "founded principally on those of England and the United States of America, but avoiding the faults and errors of both, and adapt[ed] as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country." Indeed, the Polish and American national constitutions reflected similar Enlightenment influences, including Montesquieu's advocacy of a separation and balance of powers among the three branches of government — so that, in the words o ...

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Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - History, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Background, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Drafting and Adoption, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - The fall, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Legacy, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Features, Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 - Notes

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Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks. Hetman - a Ukrainian Cossack supreme military leader Bulava - a ceremonial mace, a symbol of Hetman's authority Starshyna - officers polkovnyk - colonel oboznyi osavul khorunzhyi Otaman - lieutenant tabor - a tactic using a set of horse-drawn wagons, mastered by Cossacks in 16-17th century See also:

Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

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Main article: Early History of the Cossacks It is not clear when the Slavic people started settling in the lower reaches of the Don and the Dnieper. It is unlikely it could have happened before the 13th century, when the Mongol hordes broke the power of the Cumans and other Turkic tribes on that territory. Proto-Cossack groups most likely came into existence within the territories of today's Ukraine in the mid-13th century, when many Slavs fled south to escape the Tatar yoke. In 1261 some Slavic people living in the area ...

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Cossack, Cossack - History, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Cossack Settlements, Cossack - Cossacks during the final years of the Russian Empire, Cossack - Cossacks After the Revolution, Cossack - Cossack organization, Cossack - Cossacks and religion, Cossack - Popular image of Cossacks, Cossack - Terminology, Cossack - Ukrainian Cossacks, Cossack - Russian Cossacks, Cossack - Tatar Cossacks

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Commonwealth - Commonwealth of Nations. When capitalised, "Commonwealth" refers to the Commonwealth of Nations - formerly the "British Commonwealth" - a loose confederation of nations formerly members of the British Empire (with one exception: Mozambique). The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies and the (appointed, not hereditary) head of the Commonwealth of Nations is Queen Elizabeth II. She also reigns as monarch directly in a number of states, known as Commonwealth Realms, notably ...

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Commonwealth, Commonwealth - Definition and linguistics, Commonwealth - International or Multinational, Commonwealth - Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth - Commonwealth of Independent States, Commonwealth - National, Commonwealth - Great Britain, Commonwealth - Australia, Commonwealth - Dominica, Commonwealth - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Commonwealth of Poland, Commonwealth - Other states that use the name Commonwealth, Commonwealth - Subnational, Commonwealth - United States, Commonwealth - Fictional

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The death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum period during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system. The lower nobility was now included in the selection process, and the power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanded noble class. Each king had to sign the so called Henrician Articles, which were the basis of the political system of Poland, and pacta conventa which were various personal obligations of the chosen king. From that point, the king was effectively a p ...

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History of Poland 1569–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Founding of The Elective Monarchy, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Henryk II Walezy 1572–1573, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stefan Batory 1576–1586, History of Poland 1569–1795 - House of Vasa, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Zygmunt III Waza 1587–1632, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Polish-Sweden-Muscovy Wars, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Władysław IV Waza 1632-1648, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Jan Kazimierz Vasa 1648–1668, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Decay of the Commonwealth, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki King 1669–1673, History of Poland 1569–1795 - John III Sobieski King 1674–1696, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Augustus II the Strong Wettin King 1697–1706 1709–1733, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanislaw Leszczynski King 1706–1709 1733–1736, History of Poland 1569–1795 - August III Wettin King 1733–1763, History of Poland 1569–1795 - The Three Partitions 1764-1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanisław August Poniatowski King 1764–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Reference

Read more here: » History of Poland 1569–1795: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1569–1795 - Founding of The Elective Monarchy

During the 18th century the Polish crown itself became subject to the manipulations of Russia, Sweden, the Kingdom of Prussia, France and Austria. Poland's weakness was exacerbated by an unworkable constitution which allowed each noble or gentry representative in the Sejm to use his vetoing power to stop further parliamentary proceedings for the given session. This greatly weakened the central authority of Poland and paved the way for its destruction. Most accounts of Polish history show the two centuries after the end o ...

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History of Poland 1569–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Founding of The Elective Monarchy, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Henryk II Walezy 1572–1573, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stefan Batory 1576–1586, History of Poland 1569–1795 - House of Vasa, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Zygmunt III Waza 1587–1632, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Polish-Sweden-Muscovy Wars, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Władysław IV Waza 1632-1648, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Jan Kazimierz Vasa 1648–1668, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Decay of the Commonwealth, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki King 1669–1673, History of Poland 1569–1795 - John III Sobieski King 1674–1696, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Augustus II the Strong Wettin King 1697–1706 1709–1733, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanislaw Leszczynski King 1706–1709 1733–1736, History of Poland 1569–1795 - August III Wettin King 1733–1763, History of Poland 1569–1795 - The Three Partitions 1764-1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanisław August Poniatowski King 1764–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Reference

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During the reign of Empress Catherine the Great (1762-1796), Russia intensified its manipulation in Polish affairs. The Kingdom of Prussia and Austria, the other powers surrounding the republic, also took advantage of internal religious and political bickering to divide up the country in three partition stages. After two partitions, the third one in 1795 eventually wiped Poland-Lithuania from the map of Europe. History of Pol ...

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History of Poland 1569–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Founding of The Elective Monarchy, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Henryk II Walezy 1572–1573, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stefan Batory 1576–1586, History of Poland 1569–1795 - House of Vasa, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Zygmunt III Waza 1587–1632, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Polish-Sweden-Muscovy Wars, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Władysław IV Waza 1632-1648, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Jan Kazimierz Vasa 1648–1668, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Decay of the Commonwealth, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki King 1669–1673, History of Poland 1569–1795 - John III Sobieski King 1674–1696, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Augustus II the Strong Wettin King 1697–1706 1709–1733, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanislaw Leszczynski King 1706–1709 1733–1736, History of Poland 1569–1795 - August III Wettin King 1733–1763, History of Poland 1569–1795 - The Three Partitions 1764-1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanisław August Poniatowski King 1764–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Reference

Read more here: » History of Poland 1569–1795: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland 1569–1795 - The Three Partitions 1764-1795

Poland's unlikely partnership with the adjoining Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Europe's last heathen state, provided an immediate remedy to the political and military dilemma caused by the end of the Piast Dynasty. At the end of the fourteenth century, Lithuania was a warlike political unit with dominion over enormous stretches of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. Putting aside their previous hostility, Poland and Lithuania saw that they shared common enemies, most notably the Teutonic Knights; this situation was the direct incentive for the Unio ...

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History of Poland 1385–1569, History of Poland 1385–1569 - The Polish-Lithuanian Union, History of Poland 1385–1569 - The Golden Age of the Sixteenth Century, History of Poland 1385–1569 - Poland-Lithuania as a European Power, History of Poland 1385–1569 - The Government of Poland-Lithuania, History of Poland 1385–1569 - Poland-Lithuania in the Reformation Era, History of Poland 1385–1569 - The Polish Renaissance, History of Poland 1385–1569 - The Eastern Regions of the Realm, History of Poland 1385–1569 - Reference

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Main articles: History of Poland (1918-1939), Second Polish Republic The upcoming World War I and the political turbulence that was sweeping throughout Europe in 1914 offered the Polish nation hopes for regaining independence. By the end of World War I, Poland had seen the defeat or retreat of all three occupying powers. Polish independence was eventually proclaimed on November 3, 1918 and later confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919; the same treaty also gave Poland some German and Austrian territories (see Polis ...

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History of Poland, History of Poland - Early history of Poland 966-1385, History of Poland - The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795, History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918, History of Poland - Independence Regained 1918-1939, History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945, History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989, History of Poland - Martial law, History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present

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Main articles: History of Poland (1939-1945), Polish government in exile, Polish Secret State On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Ribbentrop–Molotov non-aggression pact, which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi and Soviet-controlled zones. On September 1, 1939, Hitler ordered his troops into Poland. On September 17, Soviet troops invaded and then occupied most of the areas of eastern Poland having significant Ukrainian and Belarusian populations under the terms of this agreement. After Germany invaded the Sovie ...

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History of Poland, History of Poland - Early history of Poland 966-1385, History of Poland - The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795, History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918, History of Poland - Independence Regained 1918-1939, History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945, History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989, History of Poland - Martial law, History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present

Read more here: » History of Poland: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945

Main article: History of Poland (1945-1989), People's Republic of Poland Following the Yalta Conference in February 1945, a Polish Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in June 1945; the US recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the Communist Party. The communists then established a regime entirely under their domination. In October 1956, after the 20th Soviet Party Congress at Moscow ushered in destalinizati ...

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History of Poland, History of Poland - Early history of Poland 966-1385, History of Poland - The Jagiellon Era 1385-1572, History of Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1572-1795, History of Poland - Partitioned Poland 1795-1918, History of Poland - Independence Regained 1918-1939, History of Poland - World War II in Poland 1939-1945, History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989, History of Poland - Martial law, History of Poland - The Third Republic 1989-present

Read more here: » History of Poland: Encyclopedia II - History of Poland - People's Republic of Poland 1945-1989