A carbon dioxide sink or CO2 sink is a carbon reservoir that is increasing in size, and is the opposite of a carbon "source". The main sinks are the oceans and growing vegetation. The concept has become more widely known through its application by the Kyoto Protocol. Carbon sequestration is the term describing processes that remove carbon from the biosphere. A variety of means of artificially capturing and storing carbon, as well as of enhancing natural sequestration processes, are being explored. This ...

Including:

• Carbon dioxide sink - Natural sinks
• Carbon dioxide sink - Forests
• Carbon dioxide sink - Oceans
• Carbon dioxide sink - Enhancing natural sequestration
• Carbon dioxide sink - Forests
• Carbon dioxide sink - Oceans
• Carbon dioxide sink - Soils
• Carbon dioxide sink - Artificial sequestration
• Carbon dioxide sink - Carbon capture
• Carbon dioxide sink - Oceans
• Carbon dioxide sink - Geological sequestration
• Carbon dioxide sink - Mineral sequestration
• Carbon dioxide sink - Carbon sinks and the Kyoto Protocol
• Carbon dioxide sink - Notes

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Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. The volatile constituents of the coal (including water, coal-gas and coal-tar) are driven off by baking in an airless oven at temperatures as high as 1,000 degrees Celsius so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Coke fuel - Properties & usage. Coke typically has a specific gravity in the range 1.85 - 1.9. It is highly porous, and a mass of coke has 40% greater volume than the equivalent mass of c ...

Including:

• Coke fuel - Properties & usage
• Coke fuel - History
• Coke fuel - Other varieties

Read more here: » Coke fuel: Encyclopedia - Coke fuel

Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (strip mining). It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock. It is composed primarily of carbon along with assorted other elements, including sulfur. Often associated with the Industrial Revolution, coal remains an enormously important fuel and is the largest single source of electricity world-wide. In the United States, for example, the burning of coal generates 50% of the electricity consumed. Coal - Etymol ...

Including:

• Coal - Etymology and folklore
• Coal - Composition
• Coal - Creation
• Coal - Types of coal
• Coal - Uses
• Coal - Coal as fuel
• Coal - Coking and use of coke
• Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning
• Coal - Coal fires
• Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia - Coal

Electricity generation - Methods for transforming other power into electrical power. Rotating turbines attached to electrical generators produce most commercially available electricity. Turbines may be driven by using steam, water, wind or other fluids as an intermediate energy carrier. The most common usage is by steam in fossil fuel power plants or nuclear power plants, and by water in hydroelectric dams. Alternately, turbines can be driven directly by the combustion of natural gas. Co-generation gas turbines ( ...

See also:

Electricity generation, Electricity generation - Electricity generation, Electricity generation - Electricity demand, Electricity generation - Methods of generating electricity, Electricity generation - Methods for transforming other power into electrical power, Electricity generation - Primary energy sources used in electrical power generation, Electricity generation - Improving efficiency, Electricity generation - Ownership and reform of electricity generation market

Read more here: » Electricity generation: Encyclopedia II - Electricity generation - Methods of generating electricity

All the energy we consume is generated by using the four fundamental interactions of nature: gravity, electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force and the strong nuclear force to create work. Fission energy and fusion energy are generated by electromagnetism and the strong nuclear force. Most forms of terrestrial energy can be traced back to fusion reaction inside the sun, with the exception of tidal power, geothermal energy and nuclear power. Geothermal energy is believed to be generated primarily by radioactive decay inside the Earth[2]. Radio ...

See also:

Future energy development, Future energy development - General considerations, Future energy development - History of predictions about future energy development, Future energy development - Fossil fuels, Future energy development - Oil, Future energy development - Natural gas, Future energy development - Coal, Future energy development - Nuclear power, Future energy development - Renewable energy, Future energy development - Increased efficiency in current energy use, Future energy development - Energy storage and transportation fuel, Future energy development - Speculative

Read more here: » Future energy development: Encyclopedia II - Future energy development - General considerations

In their embalming process, the ancient Egyptians used a mixture of substances, including methanol, which they obtained from the pyrolysis of wood. Pure methanol, however, was first isolated in 1661 by Robert Boyle, who called it spirit of box, because he produced it via the distillation of boxwood. It later became known as pyroxylic spirit. In 1834, the French chemists Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Eugene Peligot determined its elemental composition. They also introduced the word methylene to organic chemistry, forming it fro ...

See also:

Methanol, Methanol - History, Methanol - Production, Methanol - Uses, Methanol - Health and safety

Read more here: » Methanol: Encyclopedia II - Methanol - History

Storage is the main technological problem of a viable hydrogen economy. Some attention has been given to the role of hydrogen to provide grid energy storage for unpredictable energy sources, like wind power. The primary difficulty with using hydrogen for grid energy storage is that converting power to hydrogen and back is not cheap. An alternative to using this method is pumped storage. Water turbines and dam infrastructure are currently more economical than electrolysis plants, fuel cells, and hydrogen pipelines. Pumped storage is presently more efficie ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The present, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Storage

Four types of gasifier are currently available for commercial use: counter-current fixed bed, co-current fixed bed, fluid bed and entrained flow. The counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier consists of a fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (e.g. coal or biomass) through which the "gasification agent" (steam, oxygen and/or air) flows in counter-current configuration. The ash is either removed dry or as a slag. The slagging gasifiers require a higher ratio of steam and oxygen to carbon in order to reach temperatures higher tha ...

See also:

Gasification, Gasification - Gasification processes

Read more here: » Gasification: Encyclopedia II - Gasification - Gasification processes

Electricity has revolutionized the quality of human life since the late 19th century by enabling easier use of available energy sources. Inventions such as the dynamo and electric lighting sparked its growth on direct current. Later the alternator and alternating current enabled electric power transmission over long distances in a grand scale. Currently, grid load balancing is done by varying the output of generators. However, electricity is hard to store efficiently for future use. The most cost-efficient and widespread system for la ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Envisioned centralized hydrogen sources, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Rationale

Electricity generation - Methods for transforming other power into electrical power. Rotating turbines attached to electrical generators produce most commercially available electricity. Turbines may be driven by using steam, water, wind or other fluids as an intermediate energy carrier. The most common usage is by steam in fossil fuel power plants or nuclear power plants, and by water in hydroelectric dams. Small mobile generators are often driven by diesel e ...

See also:

Electricity generation, Electricity generation - Electricity generation, Electricity generation - Electricity demand, Electricity generation - Methods of generating electricity, Electricity generation - Methods for transforming other power into electrical power, Electricity generation - Primary energy sources used in electrical power generation, Electricity generation - Improving efficiency, Electricity generation - Ownership and reform of electricity generation market

Read more here: » Electricity generation: Encyclopedia II - Electricity generation - Methods of generating electricity

For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using the natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured. Thereafter it can be stored in a variety of ways. Natural gas purification plants often already have to remove carbon dioxide, either to avoid dry ice clogging gas tankers or to prevent carbon dioxide concentrations exceeding the 3% maximum permitted on the natural gas distribution grid. Beyond this, one of the most likely early applications of carbon capture is the capture of carbon dioxide from flue ...

See also:

Carbon dioxide sink, Carbon dioxide sink - Natural sinks, Carbon dioxide sink - Forests, Carbon dioxide sink - Oceans, Carbon dioxide sink - Enhancing natural sequestration, Carbon dioxide sink - Forests, Carbon dioxide sink - Oceans, Carbon dioxide sink - Soils, Carbon dioxide sink - Artificial sequestration, Carbon dioxide sink - Carbon capture, Carbon dioxide sink - Oceans, Carbon dioxide sink - Geological sequestration, Carbon dioxide sink - Mineral sequestration, Carbon dioxide sink - Carbon sinks and the Kyoto Protocol, Carbon dioxide sink - Notes

Read more here: » Carbon dioxide sink: Encyclopedia II - Carbon dioxide sink - Artificial sequestration

Coal - Coal as fuel. See also Clean coal Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce heat through combustion. World coal consumption is about 5,800 million short tons (5.3 petagrams) annually, of which about 75% is used for electricity production. The region including China and India uses about 1,700 million short tons (1.5 Pg) annually, forecast to exceed 3,000 million short tons (2.7 Pg) in 2025. ^{See also:}

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia II - Coal - Uses

Coke typically has a specific gravity in the range 1.85 - 1.9. It is highly porous, and a mass of coke has 40% greater volume than the equivalent mass of coal. Since the smoke-producing constituents are driven off during the coking of the coal, coke forms a desirable fuel for stoves and furnaces in which conditions are not suitable for the complete burning of bituminous coal itself. Coke may be burned with little or no smoke under combustion conditions which would result in a lar ...

See also:

Coke fuel, Coke fuel - Properties & usage, Coke fuel - History, Coke fuel - Other varieties

Read more here: » Coke fuel: Encyclopedia II - Coke fuel - Properties & usage

The word "coal" came from Anglo-Saxon col, which meant charcoal. Coal was not mined in Britain before late Middle Ages; i.e. after ca. 1000 AD. Mineral coal was referred to as sea-coal, either because it was found on beaches occasionally having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal seam outcrops, or because it was easier to transport by sea rather than on the very poor road system; in London, England there is still a Seacoal Lane (off the north side of Ludgate Hill) whe ...

See also:

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia II - Coal - Etymology and folklore

It has been estimated that, as of 1996, there is around one exagram (1 × 1015 kg) of total coal reserves economically accessible using current mining technology, approximately half of it being hard coal. The energy value of all the world's coal is well over 100,000 quadrillion Btu (100 zettajoules). There probably is enough coal to last for 300 years. However, this estimate assumes no rise in population, and no increased use of coal to attempt to compensate for the depletion of natural gas and petroleum. A recent (2003) study by ...

See also:

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia II - Coal - World coal reserves

Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed. Hydrogen is used in chemical reactions - the Haber process and hydrocracking - as described in "The present" above. Hydrogen economy - Energy source. The underlying premise of a hydrogen economy is that fuel cells will replace internal combustion engines and turbines as the primary way to convert chemical power into motive and electrical power. The reason to expect this changeover is that fuel cells, being electrochemical, can be more efficient than heat engines. Currently, fuel cells are very expensive, but there is ...

See also:

Hydrogen economy, Hydrogen economy - The short-term future, Hydrogen economy - Rationale, Hydrogen economy - Envisioned centralized hydrogen sources, Hydrogen economy - Production, Hydrogen economy - Fossil fuels, Hydrogen economy - Electrolysis, Hydrogen economy - Thermochemical production, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Storage, Hydrogen economy - Ammonia storage, Hydrogen economy - Metal hydrides, Hydrogen economy - Synthesized hydrocarbons, Hydrogen economy - Other methods, Hydrogen economy - Transportation, Hydrogen economy - Environmental concerns, Hydrogen economy - Consumption, Hydrogen economy - Chemical feed, Hydrogen economy - Energy source, Hydrogen economy - Problems, Hydrogen economy - Examples

Read more here: » Hydrogen economy: Encyclopedia II - Hydrogen economy - Consumption

Methanol is toxic, as its metabolites formic acid and formaldehyde cause blindness and death. It enters the body by ingestion, inhalation, or absorption through the skin. Fetal tissue will not tolerate methanol. Dangerous doses will build up if a person is regularly exposed to fumes or handles liquid without skin protection. If methanol has been ingested, a doctor should be contacted immediately. The usual fatal dose: 100–125 mL (4 fl oz). Toxic effects take hours to start, and effective antidotes can often prevent permanent damage. T ...

See also:

Methanol, Methanol - History, Methanol - Production, Methanol - Uses, Methanol - Health and safety

Read more here: » Methanol: Encyclopedia II - Methanol - Health and safety

Methanol is used on a limited basis to fuel internal combustion engines, mainly by virtue of the fact that it is not nearly as flammable as gasoline. Methanol blends are the fuel of choice in open wheel racing circuits like Champcars, as well as in radio controlled model airplanes. Drag racers and mud racers also use methanol as their primary fuel source. Methanol is required with a supercharged engine in a Top Alcohol Dragster and all vehicles in the Indianapolis 500 have to run methanol. Mud racers have mixed methanol with gasoline and nitrous oxide to produce more power than ...

See also:

Methanol, Methanol - History, Methanol - Production, Methanol - Uses, Methanol - Health and safety

Read more here: » Methanol: Encyclopedia II - Methanol - Uses

Methanol is used on a limited basis to fuel internal combustion engines, mainly by virtue of the fact that it is not nearly as flammable as gasoline. Methanol blends are the fuel of choice in open wheel racing circuits like Champcars, as well as in radio controlled model airplanes, cars and trucks. Drag racers and mud racers also use methanol as their primary fuel source. Methanol is required with a supercharged engine in a Top Alcohol Dragster and all vehicles in the Indianapolis 500 have to run methanol. Mud racers have mixed methanol with gasoline and nitrous oxide to produce more power than ...

See also:

Methanol, Methanol - History, Methanol - Production, Methanol - Uses, Methanol - Health and safety

Read more here: » Methanol: Encyclopedia II - Methanol - Uses

Today, synthesis gas is most commonly produced from the methane component in natural gas rather than from coal. Three processes are commercially practiced. At moderate pressures of 1 to 2 MPa (10–20 atm) and high temperatures (around 850 °C), methane reacts with steam on a nickel catalyst to produce syngas according to the chemical equation CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 This reaction, commonly called steam-methane reforming or SMR, is endothermic and the heat transfer limitations ...

See also:

Methanol, Methanol - History, Methanol - Production, Methanol - Uses, Methanol - Health and safety

Read more here: » Methanol: Encyclopedia II - Methanol - Production