synaptic plasticity

Calcium plays a vital role in the anatomy, physiology and biochemistry of organisms and of the cell, particularly in signal transduction pathways. The skeleton acts as a major mineral storage site for the element and releases Ca2+ ions into the bloodstream under controlled conditions. Circulating calcium is either in the free, ionized form or bound to blood proteins such as albumin. The hormone secreted by the parathyroid gland, parathyroid hormone, regulates the resorption of Ca2+ from bone. Calcium in bi ...

Including:

• Calcium in biology - Measuring Ca²⁺ in living tissue
• Calcium in biology - Organs and tissues
• Calcium in biology - Cell biology
• Calcium in biology - Calcium in plants
• Calcium in biology - Structural roles
• Calcium in biology - Cell signalling
• Calcium in biology - Food sources

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The cerebellum (Latin: "little brain") is a region of the brain that plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception and motor output. Many neural pathways link the cerebellum with the motor cortex—which sends information to the muscles causing them to move—and the spinocerebellar tract—which provides feedback on the position of the body in space (proprioception). The cerebellum integrates these two functions, using the constant feedback on body position to fine-tune motor movements. Because of this 'upda ...

Including:

• Cerebellum - General features
• Cerebellum - Development and evolution
• Cerebellum - Anatomy
• Cerebellum - Divisions
• Cerebellum - Deep nuclei
• Cerebellum - Cortical layers
• Cerebellum - Peduncles
• Cerebellum - Blood supply
• Cerebellum - Dysfunction
• Cerebellum - Lesions of the cerebellum
• Cerebellum - Ischemia and thrombosis
• Cerebellum - Theories about cerebellar function
• Cerebellum - Cerebellar modeling

Read more here: » Cerebellum: Encyclopedia - Cerebellum

In neuroscience, a neural network is a bit of conceptual juggernaut: the conceptual transition from neuroanatomy, a rigorously descriptive discipline of observed structure, to the designation of the parameters delimiting a 'network' can be problematic. In outline a neural network describes a population of physically interconnected neurons or a group of disparate neurons whose inputs or signalling targets define a recognizable circuit. Communication between neurons often involves an electrochemical process. The interface through which ...

Including:

• Biological neural network - Early study
• Biological neural network - Connections between neurons
• Biological neural network - Representations in neural networks
• Biological neural network - Philosophical issues
• Biological neural network - Study methods

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Glial cell - Microglia. Microglia are specialized macrophages capable of phagocytosis that protect neurons of the CNS. Though not technically glia because they are derived from monocytes rather than ectodermal tissue, they are commonly categorized as such because of their supportive role to neurons. Microglial cells are small relative to macroglial cells, with changing shapes and oblong nuclei. They are mobile within the brain. These cells, while normally only existing in small numbers, multiply when the brain is damaged. Gl ...

See also:

Glial cell, Glial cell - Function, Glial cell - Types of glia, Glial cell - Microglia, Glial cell - Macroglia, Glial cell - Capacity to divide, Glial cell - Embryological development, Glial cell - History

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Glutamic acid - In metabolism. Glutamate is a key molecule in cellular metabolism. In humans, dietary proteins are broken down by digestion into amino acids, which serves as metabolic fuel or other functional roles in the body. A key process in amino acid degradation is transamination, in which the amino group of an amino acid is transferred to an α-ketoacid, typically catalysed by a transaminase. The reaction can be generalised as such: R1-amino acid + R2-α-ketoacid <==> R1See also:

Glutamic acid, Glutamic acid - Structure, Glutamic acid - Synthesis, Glutamic acid - Natural, Glutamic acid - Commercial, Glutamic acid - Function, Glutamic acid - In metabolism, Glutamic acid - As a neurotransmiter, Glutamic acid - Sources and absorption, Glutamic acid - Pharmacology

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The stereotypical adrenaline junkie enjoys engaging in extreme sports and other intense or dangerous activities, such as: skydiving surfing mountain biking bungee jumping BASE jumping hang gliding riding rollercoasters automobile racing tightrope walking mountain climbing Less obvious but just as dramatic adrenaline junkies include gamblers, snow sports enthusiasts, highway speeders, emergency medical personnel, emergency response personnel (e.g., SWAT officers ...

See also:

Adrenaline junkie, Adrenaline junkie - What a rush!, Adrenaline junkie - A true addiction?

Read more here: » Adrenaline junkie: Encyclopedia II - Adrenaline junkie - What a rush!

Beta-endorphin is released into the blood (from the pituitary gland) and into the spinal cord and brain from hypothalamic neurons. The beta-endorphin that is released into the blood cannot enter the brain in large quantities because of the blood-brain barrier. The physiological importance of the beta-endorphin that can be measured in the blood is far from clear: beta-endorphin is a cleavage product of POMC which is the precursor hormone for adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), so it will be released whenever ACTH is released. The behevioral ...

See also:

Endorphin, Endorphin - History, Endorphin - Molecular biology, Endorphin - Mechanism of action, Endorphin - Activity

Read more here: » Endorphin: Encyclopedia II - Endorphin - Mechanism of action

Glutamic acid - In metabolism. Glutamate is a key molecule in cellular metabolism. In humans, dietary proteins are broken down by digestion into amino acids, which serves as metabolic fuel or other functional roles in the body. A key process in amino acid degradation is transamination, in which the amino group of an amino acid is transferred to an α-ketoacid, typically catalysed by a transaminase. The reaction can be generalised as such: R1-amino acid + R2-α-ketoacid ⇌ R1-α- ...

See also:

Glutamic acid, Glutamic acid - Structure, Glutamic acid - Synthesis, Glutamic acid - Natural, Glutamic acid - Commercial, Glutamic acid - Function, Glutamic acid - In metabolism, Glutamic acid - As a neurotransmitter, Glutamic acid - Sources and absorption, Glutamic acid - Pharmacology

Read more here: » Glutamic acid: Encyclopedia II - Glutamic acid - Function

Neurulation follows gastrulation in all vertebrates. During gastrulation cells migrate to the interior of embryo, forming three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm) from which all tissues and organs will arise. In a simplified way, it can be said that the ectoderm gives rise to skin and nervous system, the endoderm to the guts and the mesoderm to the rest of the organs. After gastrulation the notochord - a flexible, rod-shaped body that runs along the antero-posterior axis - has been formed (derived from mesoderm). The notoch ...

See also:

Neural development, Neural development - First stage: Neurulation, Neural development - Human brain development

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Angelman syndrome is caused by the loss of the the normal maternal contribution to a region of chromosome 15, most commonly by deletion of a segment of that chromosome. Other causes include uniparental disomy, translocation, or single gene mutation in that region. A healthy person receives two copies of chromosome 15, one from mother, the other from father. However, in the region of the chromosome that is critical for Angelman syndrome, the maternal and paternal contribution express certain genes very differently. This is due to sex-related ...

See also:

Angelman syndrome, Angelman syndrome - History, Angelman syndrome - Pathophysiology, Angelman syndrome - Features, Angelman syndrome - Diagnosis, Angelman syndrome - Treatment, Angelman syndrome - Prognosis, Angelman syndrome - Epigenetics links

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The structure of NMDA receptors at atomic resolution remains unknown. Still, it is widely accepted that NMDA receptors assemble as hetero-tetramers of two obligatory NR1 subunits and two regionally localized NR2 subunits. Like subunits have a vicinal arrangement. A related gene family of NR3 A through C subunits can substitute for NR2 subunits in specific brain regions and has an inhibitory effect on receptor activity. Multiple receptor isoforms with distinct brain distributions and functional properties arise by selective splicing of the NR1 transcripts and d ...

See also:

NMDA receptor, NMDA receptor - Structure, NMDA receptor - Agonists, NMDA receptor - Antagonists, NMDA receptor - Modulators, NMDA receptor - Role

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There are five types of kainate receptor subunits, GLUK1, GLUK2, GLUK5, GLUK6 and GLUK7, which are similar to AMPA and NMDA receptor subunits and can be arranged in different ways to form a pentamer, a five subunit receptor (Huettner, 2003). Like all glutamate receptor subunits, KAR subunits have the M1, M3 and M4 transmembrane domains of all ionotropic receptors, but their M2 region is a loop on the cytoplasmic side and dips into, but does not span, the cell membrane (Dingledine, ...

See also:

Kainate receptor, Kainate receptor - Structure, Kainate receptor - Conductance, Kainate receptor - Roles, Kainate receptor - Plasticity

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At a prototypical synapse, such as those found at dendritic spines, a mushroom-shaped bud projects from each of two cells and the caps of these buds press flat against one another. At this interface, the membranes of the two cells flank each other across a slender gap, the narrowness of which enables signalling molecules known as neurotransmitters to pass rapidly from one cell to the other by diffusion. This gap, which is about 20 nm wi ...

See also:

Synapse, Synapse - Anatomy, Synapse - Signaling across chemical synapses, Synapse - Synaptic strength, Synapse - Integration of synaptic inputs, Synapse - Detailed properties and regulation, Synapse - Immunological synapses

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LTP is often divided into two phases, an early, protein synthesis-independent phase (E-LTP) that lasts between one and five hours, and a late, protein synthesis-dependent phase (L-LTP) that lasts from days to months[7]. Broadly, E-LTP produces a potentiation of a few hours duration. It does so by making the postsynaptic side of the synapse more sensitive to glutamate by adding a ...

See also:

Long-term potentiation, Long-term potentiation - History, Long-term potentiation - Early theories of learning, Long-term potentiation - Discovery of long-term potentiation, Long-term potentiation - Types of LTP, Long-term potentiation - Associative LTP, Long-term potentiation - Nonassociative LTP, Long-term potentiation - Properties of LTP, Long-term potentiation - Phases of LTP, Long-term potentiation - Early LTP, Long-term potentiation - Late LTP, Long-term potentiation - Retrograde signaling, Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging, Long-term potentiation - LTP modulation, Long-term potentiation - LTP and behavioral memory, Long-term potentiation - NMDA blockade, Long-term potentiation - Doogie mice, Long-term potentiation - Notes

Read more here: » Long-term potentiation: Encyclopedia II - Long-term potentiation - Phases of LTP

Glial cell - Microglia. Microglia are specialized macrophages capable of phagocytosis that protect neurons of the CNS. Though not technically glia because they are derived from monocytes rather than ectodermal tissue, they are commonly categorized as such because of their supportive role to neurons. Microglial cells are small relative to macroglial cells, with changing shapes and oblong nucleus. They are mobile within the brain. These cells, while normally only existing in small numbers, multiply in case of damage in the brain. Gl ...

See also:

Glial cell, Glial cell - Function, Glial cell - Types of glia, Glial cell - Microglia, Glial cell - Macroglia, Glial cell - Capacity to divide, Glial cell - Embryological development, Glial cell - History

Read more here: » Glial cell: Encyclopedia II - Glial cell - Types of glia

The cerebellum contains similar gray and white matter divisions as the cerebrum. Embedded within the white matter—which is known as the arbor vitae (Tree of Life) in the cerebellum due to its branched, treelike appearance—are four deep cerebellar nuclei. Three gross phylogenetic segments are largely grouped by general function. The three cortical layers contain various cellular types that often create various feedback and feedforward loops. Oxygenated blood is supplied by three arterial branches off the basilar and vertebral arteries. See also:

Cerebellum, Cerebellum - General features, Cerebellum - Development and evolution, Cerebellum - Anatomy, Cerebellum - Divisions, Cerebellum - Deep nuclei, Cerebellum - Cortical layers, Cerebellum - Peduncles, Cerebellum - Blood supply, Cerebellum - Dysfunction, Cerebellum - Lesions of the cerebellum, Cerebellum - Ischemia and thrombosis, Cerebellum - Theories about cerebellar function, Cerebellum - Cerebellar modeling

Read more here: » Cerebellum: Encyclopedia II - Cerebellum - Anatomy

Different tissues contain Ca in different concentrations. In vertebrates Ca (mostly calcium phosphate and some calcium sulfate) is the most important (and specific) element of bone and calcified cartilage. Some invertebrates use calcium compounds for building their exoskeleton (shells and carapaces) or endoskeleton (echinoderm plates and poriferan calcareous spicules). Many "protists" also make use of calcium. There are also some plants that accumulate Ca in their tissues, thus making them more fi ...

See also:

Calcium in biology, Calcium in biology - Measuring Ca²⁺ in living tissue, Calcium in biology - Organs and tissues, Calcium in biology - Cell biology, Calcium in biology - Calcium in plants, Calcium in biology - Structural roles, Calcium in biology - Cell signalling, Calcium in biology - Food sources

Read more here: » Calcium in biology: Encyclopedia II - Calcium in biology - Organs and tissues

The best-known endorphins are α-, β- and γ-endorphin, of which β-endorphin appears to be most implicated in pain relief. The amino acid residue sequence (primary structure) of β-endorphin is: Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met-Thr-Ser-Glu-Lys-Ser-Gln-Thr-Pro-Leu-Val-Thr-Leu-Phe-Lys-Asn-Ala-Ile-Ile-Lys-Asn-Ala-Tyr-Lys-Lys-Gly-GluOH (Fries, 2002). The term enkephalin today refers to pentapeptide endorphins. Metenkephalin is Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met. Leuenkephalin has Leu in place ...

See also:

Endorphin, Endorphin - History, Endorphin - Molecular biology, Endorphin - Mechanism of action, Endorphin - Activity

Read more here: » Endorphin: Encyclopedia II - Endorphin - Molecular biology

The mGluRs in group I, including mGluR1 and mGluR5, are stimulated most strongly by the excitatory amino acid analog L-quisqualic acid (Chu and Hablitz, 2000; Bates et al., 2002). Stimulating the receptors causes an associated phospholipase C molecule to hydrolyze phosphoinositide phospholipids in the cell's plasma membrane (Chu and Hablitz, 2000; Endoh, 2004; Bonsi et al., 2005). These receptors, which are usually found on postsynaptic membranes (Endoh, 2004), are also associated with Na+ channels and K+ channel ...

See also:

Metabotropic glutamate receptor, Metabotropic glutamate receptor - Group I, Metabotropic glutamate receptor - Group II & Group III, Metabotropic glutamate receptor - Role in plasticity and neuroprotection, Metabotropic glutamate receptor - History

Read more here: » Metabotropic glutamate receptor: Encyclopedia II - Metabotropic glutamate receptor - Group I

LTP is often divided into two phases, an early, protein synthesis-independent phase (E-LTP) that lasts between one and five hours, and a late, protein synthesis-dependent phase (L-LTP) that lasts from days to months[8]. Broadly, E-LTP produces a potentiation of a few hours duration. It does so by making the postsynaptic side of the synapse more sensitive to glutamate by adding a ...

See also:

Long-term potentiation, Long-term potentiation - History, Long-term potentiation - Early theories of learning, Long-term potentiation - Discovery of long-term potentiation, Long-term potentiation - Types of LTP, Long-term potentiation - Associative LTP, Long-term potentiation - Nonassociative LTP, Long-term potentiation - Properties of LTP, Long-term potentiation - Rapid induction, Long-term potentiation - Cooperativity, Long-term potentiation - Associativity, Long-term potentiation - Input specificity, Long-term potentiation - Phases of LTP, Long-term potentiation - Early LTP, Long-term potentiation - Late LTP, Long-term potentiation - Retrograde signaling, Long-term potentiation - Synaptic tagging, Long-term potentiation - LTP modulation, Long-term potentiation - LTP and behavioral memory, Long-term potentiation - NMDA blockade, Long-term potentiation - Doogie mice, Long-term potentiation - Notes

Read more here: » Long-term potentiation: Encyclopedia II - Long-term potentiation - Phases of LTP