A Wisdom Archive on Structures

France's first socialist party, the French Workers' Party (Parti Ouvrier Français) was founded in 1880 by Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue (the son-in-law of Karl Marx). But in 1882 it split into two factions, a Marxist group led by Guesde and a moderate or "Possibilist" group led by Paul Brousse. Further splits followed, and none of the various socialist groups had much electoral success. They were hemmed in between the middle class liberals of the Radical Party and the revoluti ...

Read more here: » Socialist Party France: Encyclopedia II - Socialist Party France - History

Unlike many other European presidents, the office of the French President is quite a powerful one, especially in matters of foreign policy. Although it is the prime minister and parliament that oversee much of the nation's actual lawmaking, the French President wields significant influence, both formally and resulting from constitutional convention. The president holds the nation's most senior office, and he or she outranks all other politicians. Perhaps the president's greatest power is his or her ability to choose the prime minister ...

Read more here: » President of the French Republic: Encyclopedia II - President of the French Republic - Presidential powers

Its testing reliability is defined by a test's perfect gold standard test, by a binary variable, to be termed OK/not_OK, whose values are elements in the set {OK, not_OK}. By definition, the nondestructive test errs when its measurement of OK/not_OK differs from the measurement of the same quantity by the perfect gold standard test. The Cartesian product of the sets of values respectively measured by the perfect gold standard test and the nondestructive test defines the four, possible events that belong to a measurement: ...

Read more here: » Nondestructive testing: Encyclopedia II - Nondestructive testing - Reliability

The Prime Minister is the only authority vested with the power to issue primary regulation through decrees (décrets); that is, measures of a general character, either issued in support of statutes, or issued autonomously, depending on the area. See a discussion of statute law vs regulation in France. Other ministers may only issue secondary regulations in the form of decisions (arrêtés). Decrees and decisions of the Prime Minister, as almost all executive decisions, are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system (see Conseil d'État). Some decrees may o ...

Read more here: » Prime Minister of France: Encyclopedia II - Prime Minister of France - Rôle

The preamble of the constitution recalls the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen from 1789 and establishes France as a secular and democratic republic, deriving its sovereignty from the people. It provides for the election of the President and the Parliament, the selection of the Government, and the powers of each and the relations between them. It ensures judicial authority and creates a High Court of Justice, a Constitutional Council, and an Economic and Social Council. It was ...

Read more here: » Constitution of France: Encyclopedia II - Constitution of France - Summary

Since 2000, the President of France has been directly elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage. (Prior to 2000, presidential terms lasted seven years, and the first election to a shorter term was held in 2002). President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002. His current term will thus expire in 2007. There is no term limit, so Chirac could run again. François Mitterrand is the only President to date who has served a full two terms. The method of French presidential elections is run-off voting which ensures ...

Read more here: » President of the French Republic: Encyclopedia II - President of the French Republic - Election

The constitutional attributions of the president are defined in Title II of the Constitution of France. Article 5 The President of the Republic shall see that the Constitution is observed. He shall ensure, by his arbitration, the proper functioning of the public authorities and the continuity of the State. He shall be the guarantor of national independence, territorial integrity and observance of treaties. Article 8 The President of the Republic shall appoint the Prime Minister. He shall terminate the appointment ...

Read more here: » President of the French Republic: Encyclopedia II - President of the French Republic - Current constitutional powers

NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing, each based on a particular scientific principle. These methods may be further subdivided into various techniques. The various methods and techniques, due to their particular natures, may lend themselves especially well to certain applications and be of little or no value at all in other applications. Therefore choosing the right method and technique is an important part of the performance of NDT. Acoustic Emission Testing (AE) Acoustic-impact t ...

Read more here: » Nondestructive testing: Encyclopedia II - Nondestructive testing - Methods and techniques

In 1984 Mitterrand and his second Prime Minister, Laurent Fabius, made a sharp change of course and abandoned any further socialist measures. Since then, the Socialists have been in practice a moderate social democratic party, largely embracing the market economy. Because of this, the Socialist party is often criticised by groups further to the left such as the Workers' Struggle (Lutte Ouvrière) and the Rev ...

Read more here: » Socialist Party France: Encyclopedia II - Socialist Party France - Recent politics and policies

Prior to 1971, though executive, administrative and judicial decisions had to comply with the general principles of law (jurisprudence derived from law and the practice of law in general), there was no such restrictions on legislation. It was assumed that unelected judges and other appointees should not be able to overrule laws voted by the directly elected French parliament. In 1971, a landmark decision by the Constitutional Council (71-44DC[1]) c ...

Read more here: » Constitution of France: Encyclopedia II - Constitution of France - Impact with respect to personal freedoms