Sellafield

Sellafield - Windscale. The Sellafield site is built on land that was formerly part of the Windscale nuclear site, which is named after a nearby village. Windscale was owned by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, but when part of it was transferred to BNFL, the transferred part was renamed as "Sellafield". The remainder of the site remains in the hands of the UKAEA and is still called Windscale. Two air-cooled, graphite-moderated Windscale reactors constituted the first British weapons grade plutonium 239 production facility, built for the British nuclear weapon ...

See also:

Sellafield, Sellafield - History, Sellafield - Windscale, Sellafield - The Windscale Piles, Sellafield - The B204 reprocessing plant, Sellafield - Calder Hall nuclear power station, Sellafield - The Windscale fire, Sellafield - Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor WAGR, Sellafield - Magnox reprocessing plant, Sellafield - Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant, Sellafield - The Beach Incident, Sellafield - The Vitrification Plant, Sellafield - The Sellafield MOX Plant, Sellafield - 2005 Thorp plant leak, Sellafield - Sellafield and the local community, Sellafield - Sellafield Visitors Centre, Sellafield - Controversy, Sellafield - Leukemia risks, Sellafield - Irish objections, Sellafield - Norwegian objections, Sellafield - Plutonium records discrepency, Sellafield - Sellafield in art

Read more here: » Sellafield: Encyclopedia II - Sellafield - History

The reactors were built in a short time near the tiny village of Windscale, Cumbria, and were known as Windscale Pile 1 and Windscale Pile 2. The reactors were graphite-moderated and air-cooled. Because nuclear fission produces large amounts of heat, it was necessary to cool the reactor cores by blowing cold air through channels in the graphite. Hot air exhausted out of the back of the core was then filtered to remove any radioactive particulates before being released back into the atmosphere. The reactors had horizontal channels through which cans of unenriched uranium and lithium could be passed, to expose them to neutron radi ...

See also:

Windscale fire, Windscale fire - Background, Windscale fire - The Windscale Piles, Windscale fire - The accident, Windscale fire - The aftermath

Read more here: » Windscale fire: Encyclopedia II - Windscale fire - The Windscale Piles

Background radiation is the ionizing radiation from several natural radiation sources: sources in the Earth and from those sources that are incorporated in our food and water, which are incorporated in our body, and in building materials and other products that incorporate those radioactive sources; radiation sources from space (in the form of cosmic rays); and sources in the atmosphere which primarily come from both the radon gas that is released from the earth's surface and subsequently decays to radioactive atoms that become attach ...

Including:

• Background radiation - Natural background radiation
• Background radiation - Cosmic radiation
• Background radiation - Terrestrial sources
• Background radiation - Radon
• Background radiation - Man-made background radiation
• Background radiation - Man-made radiation sources
• Background radiation - Other usage

Read more here: » Background radiation: Encyclopedia - Background radiation

After the Second World War, in 1946, in spite of the participation of many British scientists in the Manhattan Project, the United States government passed legislation that closed its nuclear weapons program to all other countries. The British government, not wanting to be left behind as a world power in an emerging arms race, embarked on a program to build its own atomic bomb as quickly as possible. Because of the American decision to exclude Britain from its weapons program, the British had no source of the element Plutonium, the ma ...

See also:

Windscale fire, Windscale fire - Background, Windscale fire - The Windscale Piles, Windscale fire - The accident, Windscale fire - The aftermath

Read more here: » Windscale fire: Encyclopedia II - Windscale fire - Background

On October 7, 1957, operators began an annealing cycle for Windscale Pile no. 1 by shutting off the cooling systems and setting the reactor to low power. The temperature sensors indicated a falling (rather than rising) temperature. Although the operators did not realize, the temperature was indeed rising, but in a part of the pile not measured by the thermocouples. The next day, to carry out the annealing, the operators increased the power to the reactor. The reactor temperature increased further until the reactor was hot enough to catch fir ...

See also:

Windscale fire, Windscale fire - Background, Windscale fire - The Windscale Piles, Windscale fire - The accident, Windscale fire - The aftermath

Read more here: » Windscale fire: Encyclopedia II - Windscale fire - The accident

The fire itself released an estimated 20000 curies (700 terabecquerels) of radioactive material into the nearby countryside. Of particular concern was the radioactive isotope iodine-131, which has a half-life of only 8 days but is taken up by the human body and stored in the thyroid. As a result, consumption of iodine-131 often leads to cancer of the thyroid. No one was evacuated from the surrounding area, but there was concern that milk might be dangerously contaminated. Milk from about 500km2 of nearby countryside was destroyed ...

See also:

Windscale fire, Windscale fire - Background, Windscale fire - The Windscale Piles, Windscale fire - The accident, Windscale fire - The aftermath

Read more here: » Windscale fire: Encyclopedia II - Windscale fire - The aftermath

Opponents of nuclear power, such as Greenpeace, argue against its use due to issues like the long term problems of storing radioactive waste, the potential for severe radioactive contamination by an accident, and the possibility that its use will lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. They point to the nuclear accidents. According to a 1978 finding by the Supreme Court of the United States, comprehensive testing and study had not yet removed the risk of a major nuclear accident [47]. In the 1980s and 1990s each US nuclear plant ...

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Nuclear power, Nuclear power - History, Nuclear power - Origins, Nuclear power - Early years, Nuclear power - Development, Nuclear power - Current and planned use, Nuclear power - Reactor Types, Nuclear power - Current Technology, Nuclear power - Experimental Technologies, Nuclear power - Life cycle, Nuclear power - Fuel resources, Nuclear power - Reprocessing, Nuclear power - Solid waste, Nuclear power - Economy, Nuclear power - Capital costs, Nuclear power - Operating costs, Nuclear power - Subsidies, Nuclear power - Other economic issues, Nuclear power - Risks, Nuclear power - Accident or attack, Nuclear power - Air pollution, Nuclear power - Waste heat in water systems, Nuclear power - Health effect on population near nuclear plants, Nuclear power - Nuclear proliferation, Nuclear power - List of atomic energy groups, Nuclear power - USAEC/USNRC studies of risk at nuclear power plants

Read more here: » Nuclear power: Encyclopedia II - Nuclear power - Risks

(see also energy development, future energy development and renewable energy development) Nuclear energy use has been growing steadily since the 1970s and the early 1980s. The growth slowed in the 1980s because of environmentalist opposition, high interest rates, and energy conservation prompted by the oil shock in 1973, and the energy crisis in 1979 and the accidents at Three Mile Island in 1979 and Chernobyl [1]. Several countries, especially European countries have abandoned the use of nuclear energy since then. [2] In 2000, there were 438 commercial nuclear generat ...

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Nuclear energy policy, Nuclear energy policy - International use of nuclear energy, Nuclear energy policy - Africa, Nuclear energy policy - Asia, Nuclear energy policy - Oceania, Nuclear energy policy - Europe, Nuclear energy policy - North America, Nuclear energy policy - South America, Nuclear energy policy - Nuclear power phase-out, Nuclear energy policy - Discussion of nuclear energy, Nuclear energy policy - Arguments against nuclear energy, Nuclear energy policy - Arguments for nuclear energy, Nuclear energy policy - Further Readings

Read more here: » Nuclear energy policy: Encyclopedia II - Nuclear energy policy - International use of nuclear energy

Since technetium is unstable, only minute traces occur naturally in the Earth's crust as a spontaneous fission product of uranium. In 1999 David Curtis (see above) estimated that a kilogram of uranium contains 1 nanogram (1×10−9 g) of technetium. Extraterrestrial technetium was found in some red giant stars (S-, M-, and N-types) that contain an absorption line in their spectrum indicating the presence of this element. In contrast with the rare natural occurrence, bulk quantities of technetium-99 are produced each year fr ...

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Technetium, Technetium - Notable characteristics, Technetium - Applications, Technetium - Nuclear medicine, Technetium - Industrial, Technetium - History, Technetium - Pre-discovery search, Technetium - Disputed 1925 discovery, Technetium - Official discovery and later history, Technetium - Occurrence and production, Technetium - Part of radioactive waste, Technetium - Reductive immobilization, Technetium - Chemical means, Technetium - Biological means, Technetium - Isotopes, Technetium - Stability of technetium isotopes, Technetium - Precautions

Read more here: » Technetium: Encyclopedia II - Technetium - Occurrence and production

List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors. Beaver Valley, Pennsylvania Calvert Cliffs, Maryland Connecticut Yankee, Connecticut (Decommissioned) FitzPatrick, New York Ginna, New York Hope Creek, New Jersey Indian Point, New York Limerick, Pennsylvania Maine Yankee, Maine (Decommissioned) Millstone, Connecticut Nine Mile Point, New York Oyster Creek, New Jersey Peach Bottom, Pennsylvani ...

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List of nuclear reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Algeria, List of nuclear reactors - Antarctica, List of nuclear reactors - Argentina, List of nuclear reactors - Armenia, List of nuclear reactors - Australia, List of nuclear reactors - Austria, List of nuclear reactors - Bangladesh, List of nuclear reactors - Belarus, List of nuclear reactors - Belgium, List of nuclear reactors - Brazil, List of nuclear reactors - Bulgaria, List of nuclear reactors - Canada, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors 18, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - China, List of nuclear reactors - Colombia, List of nuclear reactors - Democratic Republic of the Congo, List of nuclear reactors - Cuba, List of nuclear reactors - Czech Republic, List of nuclear reactors - Denmark, List of nuclear reactors - Egypt, List of nuclear reactors - Estonia, List of nuclear reactors - Finland, List of nuclear reactors - France, List of nuclear reactors - Germany, List of nuclear reactors - Greece, List of nuclear reactors - Hungary, List of nuclear reactors - India, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors [6], List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Indonesia, List of nuclear reactors - Iran, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Iraq, List of nuclear reactors - Italy, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Israel, List of nuclear reactors - Jamaica, List of nuclear reactors - Japan, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Kazakhstan, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Latvia, List of nuclear reactors - Libya, List of nuclear reactors - Lithuania, List of nuclear reactors - Malaysia, List of nuclear reactors - Mexico, List of nuclear reactors - Morocco, List of nuclear reactors - Netherlands, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - North Korea, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Norway, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Pakistan, List of nuclear reactors - Panama, List of nuclear reactors - Philippines, List of nuclear reactors - Puerto Rico, List of nuclear reactors - Romania, List of nuclear reactors - Power stations, List of nuclear reactors - Fuel Factory, List of nuclear reactors - Research, List of nuclear reactors - Russia, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Slovakia, List of nuclear reactors - Slovenia, List of nuclear reactors - Spain, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - South Africa, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - South Korea, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Syria, List of nuclear reactors - Sweden, List of nuclear reactors - Power Station Reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Switzerland, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Taiwan, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Thailand, List of nuclear reactors - Turkey, List of nuclear reactors - Ukraine, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - United Kingdom, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - United States of America, List of nuclear reactors - Power station reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Plutonium production reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Army Nuclear Power Program, List of nuclear reactors - Research reactors, List of nuclear reactors - Links, List of nuclear reactors - Uruguay, List of nuclear reactors - Uzbekistan, List of nuclear reactors - Venezuela, List of nuclear reactors - Vietnam

Read more here: » List of nuclear reactors: Encyclopedia II - List of nuclear reactors - United States of America

What happens when a reactor core melts is the subject of conjecture and some actual experience (see below). Before the core of a nuclear reactor can melt, a number of events/failures must already have happened. Once the core melts, it will almost certainly destroy the fuel bundles and internal structures of the reactor vessel (although it may not penetrate the reactor vessel). [Note that the core at Three Mile Island did melt nearly completely but stayed within the reactor vessel.] If the melt drops into a pool of water (for example, ...

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Nuclear meltdown, Nuclear meltdown - Causes, Nuclear meltdown - Sequence of events, Nuclear meltdown - Effects, Nuclear meltdown - Reactor design, Nuclear meltdown - Popular awareness, Nuclear meltdown - Meltdowns, Nuclear meltdown - Reference, Nuclear meltdown - External link

Read more here: » Nuclear meltdown: Encyclopedia II - Nuclear meltdown - Sequence of events

City of Blinding Lights - Version 1. "City of Blinding Lights" (Radio Edit) (4:11) "All Because of You" (Killahurtz Fly Mix) (5:40) City of Blinding Lights - Version 2. "City of Blinding Lights" (Radio Edit) (4:11) "The Fly" (Live from "Stop Sellafield") (4:38) "Even Better Than the Real Thing" (Live from "Stop Sellafield") (3:50) City of Blinding Lights - Version 3. "City of Blinding Lights" (Radio Edit) (4:11) "Out of Control" (Live at Brooklyn Bridge) (5: ...

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City of Blinding Lights, City of Blinding Lights - Track Listings, City of Blinding Lights - Version 1, City of Blinding Lights - Version 2, City of Blinding Lights - Version 3, City of Blinding Lights - Version 4, City of Blinding Lights - Chart performance

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February 2005 - February 28 2005. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices released by the U.S. State Department (U.S. State Department). Steve Fossett prepares to set off on his attempt to be the first person to circumnavigate the globe, without refuelling, in a jet-powered plane – the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer. (BBC) At the Old Bailey, Briton Saajid Badat pleads guilty to planning a suicide attack on a US bound aircraft. Badat subsequently withdrew from the conspiracy, leaving fello ...

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February 2005, February 2005 - Ongoing events, February 2005 - Deaths in February, February 2005 - Ongoing armed conflicts, February 2005 - Election results in February, February 2005 - Ongoing trials, February 2005 - Related pages, February 2005 - Events, February 2005 - February 28 2005, February 2005 - February 27 2005, February 2005 - February 26 2005, February 2005 - February 25 2005, February 2005 - February 24 2005, February 2005 - February 23 2005, February 2005 - February 22 2005, February 2005 - February 21 2005, February 2005 - February 20 2005, February 2005 - February 19 2005, February 2005 - February 18 2005, February 2005 - February 17 2005, February 2005 - February 16 2005, February 2005 - February 15 2005, February 2005 - February 14 2005, February 2005 - February 13 2005, February 2005 - February 12 2005, February 2005 - February 11 2005, February 2005 - February 10 2005, February 2005 - February 9 2005, February 2005 - February 8 2005, February 2005 - February 7 2005, February 2005 - February 6 2005, February 2005 - February 5 2005, February 2005 - February 4 2005, February 2005 - February 3 2005, February 2005 - February 2 2005, February 2005 - February 1 2005, February 2005 - Events by month, February 2005 - News collections and sources

Read more here: » February 2005: Encyclopedia II - February 2005 - Events

Magnox reactors are pressurised carbon dioxide cooled, graphite moderated reactors using natural uranium (i.e. unenriched) as fuel and magnox alloy as fuel cladding. The design was continuously refined, and very few units are identical. Early reactors have steel pressure vessels, while later units (Oldbury and Wylfa) are of reinforced concrete; some are cylindrical in design, but most are spherical. Working pressure varies from 6.9 to 19.35 bar for the steel pressure vessels, and the two reinforced concrete designs operated at 24.8 an ...

See also:

Magnox, Magnox - General description, Magnox - Decommissioning, Magnox - List of Magnox reactors in the UK, Magnox - Magnox reactors exported from the UK

Read more here: » Magnox: Encyclopedia II - Magnox - General description

Nuclear power - Current Technology. There are two types of nuclear power sources in current use: The nuclear fission reactor produces heat through a controlled nuclear chain reaction in a critical mass of fissile material. All current nuclear power plants are critical fission reactors, which are the focus of this article. The output of fission reactors is controllable. There are several subtypes of critical fission reactors. All reactors will be compared to the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR ...

See also:

Nuclear power, Nuclear power - History, Nuclear power - Origins, Nuclear power - Early years, Nuclear power - Development, Nuclear power - Current and planned use, Nuclear power - Reactor Types, Nuclear power - Current Technology, Nuclear power - Experimental Technologies, Nuclear power - Life cycle, Nuclear power - Fuel resources, Nuclear power - Reprocessing, Nuclear power - Solid waste, Nuclear power - Economy, Nuclear power - Capital costs, Nuclear power - Operating costs, Nuclear power - Subsidies, Nuclear power - Other economic issues, Nuclear power - Risks, Nuclear power - Accident or attack, Nuclear power - Air pollution, Nuclear power - Waste heat in water systems, Nuclear power - Health effect on population near nuclear plants, Nuclear power - Nuclear proliferation, Nuclear power - List of atomic energy groups

Read more here: » Nuclear power: Encyclopedia II - Nuclear power - Reactor Types

East Irish Sea Basin With 7.5 trillion cubic feet (210 km³) of gas and 176 million barrels (28,000,000 m³) of oil estimated by the field operators as initially recoverable reserves from eight producing fields (DTI, 2001), the East Irish Sea Basin is at a mature exploration phase. Early Namurian basinal mudstones are the source rocks for these hydrocarbons. Production from all fields is from fault-bounded traps of the Lower Triassic formation, principally aeolian Sherwood Sandstone reservoir, top-sealed by younger Triassic con ...

See also:

Irish Sea, Irish Sea - Shipping, Irish Sea - Origin, Irish Sea - Environment, Irish Sea - U-boat Alley, Irish Sea - Oil and gas exploration, Irish Sea - Proposed tunnel projects, Irish Sea - Wind power, Irish Sea - Footnotes

Read more here: » Irish Sea: Encyclopedia II - Irish Sea - Oil and gas exploration

Natural background radiation comes from three primary sources: cosmic radiation, terrestrial sources, and radon. The worldwide average background dose for a human being is about 2.4 mSv per year [1] (pdf). This exposure is mostly from cosmic radiation and natural isotopes in the Earth. Background radiation - Cosmic radiation. The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system of positively charged ions from protons to iron nuclei. This radiation inte ...

See also:

Background radiation, Background radiation - Natural background radiation, Background radiation - Cosmic radiation, Background radiation - Terrestrial sources, Background radiation - Radon, Background radiation - Man-made background radiation, Background radiation - Man-made radiation sources, Background radiation - Other usage

Read more here: » Background radiation: Encyclopedia II - Background radiation - Natural background radiation

Nuclear power phase-out - Arguments for the phase-out. Anti-nuclear politicians state environmental concerns with nuclear power as arguments for a phase-out. A main concern against the use of nuclear power for energy production is safety of the environment and people. Nuclear accidents in the past, including some at civilian power plants, have released radioactive contamination. The biggest, at Chernobyl, killed 41[68][69] and hurt many people and rendered large amounts of land unusable for the next few centuries ...

See also:

Nuclear power phase-out, Nuclear power phase-out - Introduction, Nuclear power phase-out - Countries that have initiated a phase out or have discussed it, Nuclear power phase-out - Belgium, Nuclear power phase-out - Germany, Nuclear power phase-out - Italy, Nuclear power phase-out - The Netherlands, Nuclear power phase-out - Philippines, Nuclear power phase-out - Sweden, Nuclear power phase-out - Switzerland, Nuclear power phase-out - Other countries, Nuclear power phase-out - Europe including Russia, Nuclear power phase-out - Oceania, Nuclear power phase-out - Asia, Nuclear power phase-out - North America, Nuclear power phase-out - South America, Nuclear power phase-out - Africa, Nuclear power phase-out - Pros and cons of the phase-out, Nuclear power phase-out - Arguments for the phase-out, Nuclear power phase-out - Arguments against the phase-out, Nuclear power phase-out - Further readings

Read more here: » Nuclear power phase-out: Encyclopedia II - Nuclear power phase-out - Pros and cons of the phase-out

Cumbria is neighboured by Northumberland, County Durham, North Yorkshire, Lancashire, and the Lieutenancy areas of Dumfries and Roxburgh, Ettrick and Lauderdale in Scotland. The boundaries are along the Irish Sea to Morecambe Bay in the west, and along the Pennines to the east. Cumbria's northern boundary stretches from the Solway Firth along the border with Scotland to Northumberland. It is made up of six districts: Allerdale, Barrow and F ...

See also:

Cumbria, Cumbria - Boundaries and divisions, Cumbria - History, Cumbria - Towns and Villages, Cumbria - People of Interest, Cumbria - Places of Interest

Read more here: » Cumbria: Encyclopedia II - Cumbria - Boundaries and divisions

February 2005 - February 28 2005. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices released by the U.S. State Department (U.S. State Department). Steve Fossett prepares to set off on his attempt to be the first person to circumnavigate the globe, without refuelling, in a jet-powered plane – the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer. (BBC) At the Old Bailey, Briton Saajid Badat pleads guilty to planning a suicide attack on a US bound aircraft. Badat subsequently withdrew from the conspiracy, leaving fello ...

See also:

February 2005, February 2005 - Ongoing events, February 2005 - Deaths in February, February 2005 - Ongoing armed conflicts, February 2005 - Election results in Feb., February 2005 - Ongoing trials, February 2005 - Related pages, February 2005 - Events, February 2005 - February 28 2005, February 2005 - February 27 2005, February 2005 - February 26 2005, February 2005 - February 25 2005, February 2005 - February 24 2005, February 2005 - February 23 2005, February 2005 - February 22 2005, February 2005 - February 21 2005, February 2005 - February 20 2005, February 2005 - February 19 2005, February 2005 - February 18 2005, February 2005 - February 17 2005, February 2005 - February 16 2005, February 2005 - February 15 2005, February 2005 - February 14 2005, February 2005 - February 13 2005, February 2005 - February 12 2005, February 2005 - February 11 2005, February 2005 - February 10 2005, February 2005 - February 9 2005, February 2005 - February 8 2005, February 2005 - February 7 2005, February 2005 - February 6 2005, February 2005 - February 5 2005, February 2005 - February 4 2005, February 2005 - February 3 2005, February 2005 - February 2 2005, February 2005 - February 1 2005, February 2005 - Events by month, February 2005 - News collections and sources

Read more here: » February 2005: Encyclopedia II - February 2005 - Events