During the times of Second Polish Republic, when Poland regained territories of Western Belarus, Western Ukraine and the Wilno region, linguistic assimilation was considered as a major factor of unifying the state by National Democrats. For example, Stanisław Grabski, Polish Minister for Religion and Public Education in 1923-1926 wrote that "Poland may be preserved only as the state of Polish people. If it were a state of Poles, Jews, Germans, Rusyns, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Russians, it would lose its independence again." Some oth ...

See also:

Polonization, Polonization - Second Polish Republic, Polonization - Post World War II, Polonization - Notes

Read more here: » Polonization: Encyclopedia II - Polonization - Second Polish Republic

Occupied by German and Austro-Hungarian armies in the summer of 1915, the formerly Russian-ruled part of what was considered Poland was proclaimed an independent kingdom by the occupying powers on November 5, 1916, with a governing Council of State and (from October 15, 1917) a Regency Council (Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego) to administer the country under German auspices pending the election of a king. Shortly before the end of World War I, on October 7, 1918, the Regency Council dissolved the Council of State and annou ...

See also:

Second Polish Republic, Second Polish Republic - History, Second Polish Republic - List of events, Second Polish Republic - World War II, Second Polish Republic - Politics and government, Second Polish Republic - Economy, Second Polish Republic - Demographics, Second Polish Republic - Culture, Second Polish Republic - Geography and demographics

Read more here: » Second Polish Republic: Encyclopedia II - Second Polish Republic - History

Lviv - Early history. Recent archaeological excavations show that the area of Lviv has been populated since at least the 5th century. At the dawn of history, the area became incorporated into the Empire of Great Moravia, then became an area of contention between two emerging states: Poland (during the reign of Mieszko I, ruler of the Polans) and the Kievan Rus. Mieszko is thought to have controlled the area from 960 to 980. According to Nestor's chronicle, in 981 this area was conquered by Volodymyr ...

See also:

Lviv, Lviv - Geography, Lviv - Location, Lviv - Climate, Lviv - History, Lviv - Early history, Lviv - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lviv - Decline of the Commonwealth, Lviv - Partitions, Lviv - 20th century, Lviv - Government, Lviv - Administrative division, Lviv - Public Transportation, Lviv - Buses, Lviv - Tramways, Lviv - Trolleybuses, Lviv - Railway, Lviv - Airports, Lviv - Culture, Lviv - Museums and art galleries, Lviv - Sport, Lviv - Films and books featuring Lviv, Lviv - Education, Lviv - Tourist attractions, Lviv - Famous Leopolitans

Read more here: » Lviv: Encyclopedia II - Lviv - History

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Russian: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин listen ▶ (help·info)), original surname Ulyanov (Улья́нов) (April 22 (April 10 (O.S.)), 1870 – January 21, 1924), was a Communist revolutionary of Russia, the leader of the Bolshevik party, the first Premier of the Soviet Union, and the main theorist of Leninism, which he described as ...

Including:

• Vladimir Lenin - Early life
• Vladimir Lenin - Revolutionary
• Vladimir Lenin - Head of the Soviet state
• Vladimir Lenin - Premature death
• Vladimir Lenin - After death
• Vladimir Lenin - Lenin's brain study
• Vladimir Lenin - Trivia
• Vladimir Lenin - Notes

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Witold Pilecki (May 13, 1901 – May 25, 1948; pronounced ['vitɔld pi'leʦki]; codenames Roman Jezierski, Tomasz Serafiński, Druh, Witold) was a soldier of the Second Polish Republic, founder of the resistance movement Secret Polish Army (Tajna Armia Polska) and member of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa). During World War II he was the only known person to volunteer to be imprisoned at Auschwitz Concentration Camp. While there, he organized inmate resistance, and as early as 1940 informed the Western Allies of Nazi ...

Including:

• Witold Pilecki - Biography
• Witold Pilecki - Pilecki's early life
• Witold Pilecki - World War II breaks out
• Witold Pilecki - The Auschwitz campaign: 945 days
• Witold Pilecki - Back outside Auschwitz: the Warsaw Uprising.
• Witold Pilecki - Liberation: Soviet-dominated Poland
• Witold Pilecki - Summary of Pilecki's Polish Army career

Read more here: » Witold Pilecki: Encyclopedia - Witold Pilecki

Lviv - Location. Lviv is located at geographical co-ordinates 49°50′45″N, 24°01′38″E, on the verge of the Roztocze Upland, approximately seventy kilometres from the Polish border. Lviv's altitude averages 289 metres above sea level although there are many hills located within the confines of the city. The city's highest point is Vysokyy Zamok (the High Castle), a hill ...

See also:

Lviv, Lviv - Geography, Lviv - Location, Lviv - Climate, Lviv - History, Lviv - Early history, Lviv - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lviv - Decline of the Commonwealth, Lviv - Partitions, Lviv - 20th century, Lviv - Government, Lviv - Administrative division, Lviv - Public Transportation, Lviv - Buses, Lviv - Tramways, Lviv - Trolleybuses, Lviv - Railway, Lviv - Airports, Lviv - Culture, Lviv - Museums and art galleries, Lviv - Sport, Lviv - Films and books featuring Lviv, Lviv - Education, Lviv - Tourist attractions, Lviv - Famous Leopolitans

Read more here: » Lviv: Encyclopedia II - Lviv - Geography

The Congress Poland is an unofficial term for the Kingdom of Poland (1815-1831), a political entity that was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, when European powers reorganised Europe following the Napoleonic wars. It had an area of roughly 127 000 km² (compared with over 1 million km² of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a population of approximately 2,600,000 (in 1814) (compared with approximately 10 million Commonwealth citizens). Congress Poland largely emerged as a result of the effor ...

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Witold Lutosławski (IPA: /vitɔld lutɔswavski/; January 25, 1913 – February 7, 1994) was one of the major European composers of the 20th century. He was possibly the most significant Polish composer since Chopin, and was the pre-eminent musician of his country during the last three decades of the century. During his lifetime he earned a large number of international awards and prizes, includ ...

Including:

• Witold Lutosławski - Biography
• Witold Lutosławski - Family and early years
• Witold Lutosławski - World War II
• Witold Lutosławski - Postwar years
• Witold Lutosławski - Maturity
• Witold Lutosławski - International renown
• Witold Lutosławski - Final years
• Witold Lutosławski - Music
• Witold Lutosławski - Folk influence
• Witold Lutosławski - Pitch organisation
• Witold Lutosławski - Aleatory technique
• Witold Lutosławski - Late style
• Witold Lutosławski - Selected compositions
• Witold Lutosławski - Orchestral Works
• Witold Lutosławski - Concertante Works
• Witold Lutosławski - Vocal/Choral Works
• Witold Lutosławski - Chamber/Instrumental Works
• Witold Lutosławski - Film Music

Read more here: » Witold Lutosławski: Encyclopedia - Witold Lutosławski

The Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 (Polish: Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja) is claimed to be Europe's first modern codified national constitution as well as the second oldest constitution in the world. It was instituted by the Government Act (Polish: Ustawa rządowa) adopted on that date by the Sejm (parliament) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was designed to redress long-standing political defects of the federative Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its Golden Liberty. The Constitution introduced political equ ...

Including:

• Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - History
• Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Background
• Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Drafting and Adoption
• Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - The fall
• Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Legacy
• Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Features
• Polish Constitution of May 3 1791 - Notes

Read more here: » Polish Constitution of May 3 1791: Encyclopedia - Polish Constitution of May 3 1791

L'viv is one of the most important education centres of Ukraine. It is home to three major universities and a number of smaller schools of higher education. There are 8 institutes of the National Science Academy of Ukraine, more than 40 research institutes, 3 academies and 11 state-owned colleges. The most important are: University of Lviv (Львівський національний університет імені Івана Франка) Lviv Polytechnic ...

See also:

Lviv, Lviv - Geography, Lviv - Location, Lviv - Climate, Lviv - History, Lviv - Early history, Lviv - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lviv - Decline of the Commonwealth, Lviv - Partitions, Lviv - 20th century, Lviv - Government, Lviv - Administrative division, Lviv - Public Transportation, Lviv - Buses, Lviv - Tramways, Lviv - Trolleybuses, Lviv - Railway, Lviv - Airports, Lviv - Culture, Lviv - Museums and art galleries, Lviv - Sport, Lviv - Films and books featuring Lviv, Lviv - Education, Lviv - Tourist attractions, Lviv - Famous Leopolitans

Read more here: » Lviv: Encyclopedia II - Lviv - Education

Lviv - Museums and art galleries. There are many museums and art galleries in Lviv, most notable are the National Gallery, Museum of Religion (formerly Museum of Atheism) and National Museum (formerly Museum of Industry). Lviv - Sport. Historically Lviv was one of the most important centres of sports in Central Europe. The first professional football club, Czarni Lwów, was opened in 1903, and the first stadium was opened in 1913. Currently L'viv is home to several major profes ...

See also:

Lviv, Lviv - Geography, Lviv - Location, Lviv - Climate, Lviv - History, Lviv - Early history, Lviv - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lviv - Decline of the Commonwealth, Lviv - Partitions, Lviv - 20th century, Lviv - Government, Lviv - Administrative division, Lviv - Public Transportation, Lviv - Buses, Lviv - Tramways, Lviv - Trolleybuses, Lviv - Railway, Lviv - Airports, Lviv - Culture, Lviv - Museums and art galleries, Lviv - Sport, Lviv - Films and books featuring Lviv, Lviv - Education, Lviv - Tourist attractions, Lviv - Famous Leopolitans

Read more here: » Lviv: Encyclopedia II - Lviv - Culture

Lviv - Buses. As in most Ukrainian cities, the public bus network is not well-developed and the number of lines is limited. A cheap alternative to the public transport are the "marshrutky", which are small private-run mini-vans/mini-buses cruising around the city and the suburbs. Marshrutky do not have any fixed stops nor timetables, yet their services are relatively cheap, fast and efficient. The marshrutky also run on suburban lines to most towns of the region including the line to Shehyni (Шегині) at the Polish border. ...

See also:

Lviv, Lviv - Geography, Lviv - Location, Lviv - Climate, Lviv - History, Lviv - Early history, Lviv - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lviv - Decline of the Commonwealth, Lviv - Partitions, Lviv - 20th century, Lviv - Government, Lviv - Administrative division, Lviv - Public Transportation, Lviv - Buses, Lviv - Tramways, Lviv - Trolleybuses, Lviv - Railway, Lviv - Airports, Lviv - Culture, Lviv - Museums and art galleries, Lviv - Sport, Lviv - Films and books featuring Lviv, Lviv - Education, Lviv - Tourist attractions, Lviv - Famous Leopolitans

Read more here: » Lviv: Encyclopedia II - Lviv - Public Transportation

Lviv - Administrative division. Lviv is divided in 6 distinct entities called raions with their own administrative bodies: Halyts'ky (Галицький район) Zaliznychny (Залізничний район) Lychakivs'ky (Личаківський район) Sykhivsky (Сихівський район) Frankivs'ky (Франківський район) Shevchenkivs'ky (Шевченківський район) Notable suburbs are: Vynnyky (місто Винники) Brokhovychi (селище Брюховичі) Rud ...

See also:

Lviv, Lviv - Geography, Lviv - Location, Lviv - Climate, Lviv - History, Lviv - Early history, Lviv - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lviv - Decline of the Commonwealth, Lviv - Partitions, Lviv - 20th century, Lviv - Government, Lviv - Administrative division, Lviv - Public Transportation, Lviv - Buses, Lviv - Tramways, Lviv - Trolleybuses, Lviv - Railway, Lviv - Airports, Lviv - Culture, Lviv - Museums and art galleries, Lviv - Sport, Lviv - Films and books featuring Lviv, Lviv - Education, Lviv - Tourist attractions, Lviv - Famous Leopolitans

Read more here: » Lviv: Encyclopedia II - Lviv - Government

The political agenda is Christian left. However, recently the party has begun to emphasize populism, patriotism and far right social values. The party combines social conservatism with isolationism and left-wing economic policies, based upon its own interpretation of Catholic social teaching. The party is Eurosceptic. Although it was the only significant political force in Poland that unconditionally opposed Polish membership in the European Union, believing that a union formed by social liberals from the ground up could never be refo ...

See also:

League of Polish Families, League of Polish Families - History, League of Polish Families - Political agenda, League of Polish Families - Attitude towards the European Union, League of Polish Families - Stance on Homosexuality, League of Polish Families - Members of Polish Parliament Sejm 2001-2005, League of Polish Families - League of Polish Families - Electoral Committee, League of Polish Families - Members of Polish Senate 2001-2005, League of Polish Families - Members of European Parliament, League of Polish Families - Eurosceptic caucus: Independence and Democracy

Read more here: » League of Polish Families: Encyclopedia II - League of Polish Families - Political agenda

Since 1928 there were recurring attempts to create the triangle of security, an industrial region in the middle of the country, secured from any aggression by Germany or Soviet Russia. The plan was finally approved in 1936 by the Polish government. By April 1938 the plan, already set in motion in some parts of the country, was expanded to the territories beyond the early plan for the most secure 'triangle'. COP was localised on the territories of the following former voivodships: eastern parts of Kielce Voivodship and Kraków V ...

See also:

Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy, Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy - The plan history, Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy - The plan achievements

Read more here: » Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy: Encyclopedia II - Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy - The plan history

The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the Jagiellon dynasty. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy. The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th century. Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles ...

See also:

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - History, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - State organization and politics, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Commonwealth military, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Golden Liberty, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - The political players, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Shortcomings of the Commonwealth, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Late reforms, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Economy, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Culture, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Szlachta and Sarmatism, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Demographics and religion, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Provinces and geography, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Voivodships of the Commonwealth

Read more here: » Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Encyclopedia II - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - History

Military history of the Soviet Union - Interwar period. See also: Interwar period Following the death of Lenin, the Soviet Union was enmeshed in a struggle for succession that pitted Trotsky and his policy of "world revolution" against Stalin and his policy of "socialism in one country." Thanks to his control over and support from the Party and state bureaucracy, Stalin prevailed and Trotsky was removed as war commissar in 1925, resulting in a turn away from the policy of spreading the revolution abroad in favour o ...

See also:

Military history of the Soviet Union, Military history of the Soviet Union - Tsarist and revolutionary background, Military history of the Soviet Union - Development of the structure ideology and doctrine of the Soviet military, Military history of the Soviet Union - Party control, Military history of the Soviet Union - Military counterintelligence, Military history of the Soviet Union - Political doctrine, Military history of the Soviet Union - Military-party relations, Military history of the Soviet Union - Military doctrine, Military history of the Soviet Union - Practical deployment of the Soviet military, Military history of the Soviet Union - Interwar period, Military history of the Soviet Union - World War II, Military history of the Soviet Union - The Cold War and conventional forces, Military history of the Soviet Union - The Cold War and nuclear weapons, Military history of the Soviet Union - Military-industrial complex and the economy, Military history of the Soviet Union - Collapse of the Soviet Union and the military, Military history of the Soviet Union - Timeline, Military history of the Soviet Union - Foreign military aid, Military history of the Soviet Union - Crimes against civilians, Military history of the Soviet Union - Notes

Read more here: » Military history of the Soviet Union: Encyclopedia II - Military history of the Soviet Union - Practical deployment of the Soviet military

History of the Jews in Poland - Early history: 966–1385. Main article: History of Poland (966-1385) The first Jews arrived in the territory of modern Poland in the 10th century. Travelling along the trade routes leading eastwards to Kiev and Bukhara, the Jewish merchants also crossed the areas of Silesia. One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the Moorish town of Tortosa in Al-Andalus, known under his Arabic name of Ibrahim ibn Jakub, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish ...

See also:

History of the Jews in Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572, History of the Jews in Poland - Early history: 966–1385, History of the Jews in Poland - The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505, History of the Jews in Poland - Center of the Jewish world: 1505–72, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795, History of the Jews in Poland - The Warsaw Confederation, History of the Jews in Poland - Increasing isolation, History of the Jews in Poland - The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge, History of the Jews in Poland - Decline under the Saxon Dynasty, History of the Jews in Poland - The Partitions, History of the Jews in Poland - The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish learning, History of the Jews in Poland - The rise of Hasidism, History of the Jews in Poland - Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire 1795–1918, History of the Jews in Poland - Pogroms, History of the Jews in Poland - Haskalah and Halakha, History of the Jews in Poland - Politics in Polish Territory, History of the Jews in Poland - Interwar period 1918–39, History of the Jews in Poland - Independence and Polish Jews, History of the Jews in Poland - Jewish and Polish culture, History of the Jews in Poland - Growing anti-Semitism, History of the Jews in Poland - WWII and the destruction of Polish Jewry 1939–45, History of the Jews in Poland - The Polish September campaign, History of the Jews in Poland - Soviet-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - The Holocaust: German-occupied Poland, History of the Jews in Poland - Communist rule: 1945–89, History of the Jews in Poland - Postwar, History of the Jews in Poland - 1967–1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Since 1989, History of the Jews in Poland - Notes

Read more here: » History of the Jews in Poland: Encyclopedia II - History of the Jews in Poland - Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572

It came under the control of the Kyivan Rus at end of the 10th century. In the 13th century, the fragile unity of Rus' disintegrated due to nomadic incursions from Asia, which reached a climax with the Mongol Horde's sacking of Kyiv (1240), leaving a geopolitical vacuum in the region. The Early East Slavs splintered along preexisting tribal lines into a number of independent and competing principalities. Due to military alliances, dynastic marriages and previous assimilation, the Belarusian principalities gravitated toward the expanding Lith ...

See also:

Navahradak, Navahradak - History, Navahradak - Ruling Princes, Navahradak - Famous people from Navahradak

Read more here: » Navahradak: Encyclopedia II - Navahradak - History

Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Economic base. Between 1936 and 1939, Poland invested heavily in industrialization of the Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy, chosen for being reasonably far from both the Soviet and German frontiers. That heavy spending on military industry pushed much of the spending on actual weapons into 1940–42. Poland had been preparing for defensive war for many years; however, most plans assumed German aggression would not happen before 1942. Polish military industry develop ...

See also:

Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Germany, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Economic base, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Wehrmacht, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Luftwaffe, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Kriegsmarine, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Poland, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Economic base, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Polish Army, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Polish Air Force, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Polish Navy, Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Soviet Union

Read more here: » Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign: Encyclopedia II - Opposing forces in the Polish September Campaign - Poland