The active form of a multisyllabic verb with an initial stop consonant or fricative consonant is formed by prefixing the verb stem with meN-, in which N stands for a nasal consonant sharing the place of articulation as the initial consonant. garuk → menggaruk (= to scratch), hitung → menghitung (= to count), beri → memberi (= to give), fitnah → memfitnah (= to falsely accuse), cari → mencari (= to search), dapat → mendapat (= to obta ...

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Consonant mutation, Consonant mutation - Celtic, Consonant mutation - Japanese, Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay, Consonant mutation - Southern Paiute, Consonant mutation - Fula, Consonant mutation - Finnish, Consonant mutation - Dholuo, Consonant mutation - English, Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew, Consonant mutation - In fiction, Consonant mutation - Sindarin, Consonant mutation - Mutation vs. sandhi, Consonant mutation - Bibliography

Read more here: » Consonant mutation: Encyclopedia II - Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay

Rendaku (meaning sequential voicing) is a mutation of the initial consonant of a non-initial component in a Japanese compound word. Some compounds exhibiting rendaku: nigiri + sushi → nigirizushi ("squeeze" + "sushi" → "hand-shaped sushi") nigori + sake → nigorizake ("muddy" + "rice wine" → "unfiltered sake") Nigori in "nigorizake" and the daku in "rendaku" are actually different readings (see On-yomi and Kun-yomi) of the same kanji 濁, because voiced and unvoiced consonants ...

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Consonant mutation, Consonant mutation - Celtic, Consonant mutation - Japanese, Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay, Consonant mutation - Southern Paiute, Consonant mutation - Fula, Consonant mutation - Finnish, Consonant mutation - Dholuo, Consonant mutation - English, Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew, Consonant mutation - In fiction, Consonant mutation - Sindarin, Consonant mutation - Mutation vs. sandhi, Consonant mutation - Bibliography

Read more here: » Consonant mutation: Encyclopedia II - Consonant mutation - Japanese

For details see the articles on the individual languages: Breton language, Cornish language, Irish initial mutations, Manx language, Scottish Gaelic language, Welsh morphology. The Celtic languages are well known for their initial consonant mutations. The individual languages vary on the number of mutations available: Scottish Gaelic and Manx have one, Irish has two, and the Brythonic languages Welsh, Breton and Cornish each have three (but not the same three). Additionally, Irish and the Brythonic languages have so-called "mix ...

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Consonant mutation, Consonant mutation - Celtic, Consonant mutation - Japanese, Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay, Consonant mutation - Southern Paiute, Consonant mutation - Fula, Consonant mutation - Finnish, Consonant mutation - Dholuo, Consonant mutation - English, Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew, Consonant mutation - In fiction, Consonant mutation - Sindarin, Consonant mutation - Mutation vs. sandhi, Consonant mutation - Bibliography

Read more here: » Consonant mutation: Encyclopedia II - Consonant mutation - Celtic

Modern Hebrew shows a limited set of mutation alternations, involving spirantization only. The consonants affected may be stem-initial, stem-medial, or stem-final. For example, some verbs show mutation between tenses and conjugation classes: katav 'he wrote', yixtov 'he will write' tiba 'he sank' (intransitive), tava 'he sank' (transitive) Some nouns show mutation between masculine and feminine, between singular and plural, or after prepositions: melex ...

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Consonant mutation, Consonant mutation - Celtic, Consonant mutation - Japanese, Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay, Consonant mutation - Southern Paiute, Consonant mutation - Fula, Consonant mutation - Finnish, Consonant mutation - Dholuo, Consonant mutation - English, Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew, Consonant mutation - In fiction, Consonant mutation - Sindarin, Consonant mutation - Mutation vs. sandhi, Consonant mutation - Bibliography

Read more here: » Consonant mutation: Encyclopedia II - Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew

Hakka linguistics - Moiyen dialect initials. There are no voiced plosives ([b d g]) in Hakka, but it exhibits two sets of voiceless, one unaspirated ([p t k]), and the other aspirated ([pʰ tʰ kʰ]). When the initials z c s ([ʦ ʦʰ s]) and ng ([ ...

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Hakka linguistics, Hakka linguistics - Name, Hakka linguistics - History, Hakka linguistics - Linguistic development, Hakka linguistics - Hakka phonology, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen dialect initials, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen rimes, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen tones, Hakka linguistics - Tone Sandhi in Moiyen Hakka, Hakka linguistics - Other dialects of Hakka, Hakka linguistics - Hakka Vocabulary, Hakka linguistics - Writing systems

Read more here: » Hakka linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Hakka linguistics - Hakka phonology

The Yang Shu tone is composed of Yang registers of the Ping, Shang and Qu tone characters. The Yin Ru and Yang Ru tones are abrupt tones, and apply only to those rimes in Shanghai dialect, which end in the glottal stop [ ʔ ]. The Yin Shang tone (/55/) is not common in today's variants of the Shanghai dialect, having merged into the Yin Qu tone. If the Ru tone and tones automatically related to the voiced initials (b d g z v dʑ ʑ) are not considered (as they are fixed into the syllabic structure), then the Shanghai dialect has only 2 live tonal contrasts (/53/ and /34/). This makes ...

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Shanghainese dialect, Shanghainese dialect - Common Words and Phrases in Shanghainese, Shanghainese dialect - Initials, Shanghainese dialect - Rimes, Shanghainese dialect - Tones, Shanghainese dialect - Advanced tone sandhi and argument for pitch accent classification:, Shanghainese dialect - Chicago Romanization, Shanghainese dialect - Fudan Romanization

Read more here: » Shanghainese dialect: Encyclopedia II - Shanghainese dialect - Tones

The tones in Penang Hokkien are: 陰平 Yin-ping |44| 上聲 Shang-sheng |52| 陰去 Yin-qu |21| 陰入 Yin-ru |2| 陽平 Yang-ping |24|   陽去 Yang-qu |22| 陽入 Yang-ru |4| The numbers in | | reflect the tone contours, with 5 being the highest and 1 the lowest. As in the Xiamen (Amoy) standard, the Shangsheng is not distinguished into Yin and Yang, and there is thus no 6th tone. However, as in the Zhangzhou dialect the two Qu tones are virtually ...

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Penang Hokkien, Penang Hokkien - Tones, Penang Hokkien - Tone sandhi, Penang Hokkien - Differences from standard Minnan, Penang Hokkien - Differences from the Zhangzhou dialect, Penang Hokkien - Borrowed words from Malay, Penang Hokkien - Borrowed words from English, Penang Hokkien - Borrowed words from either English or Malay

Read more here: » Penang Hokkien: Encyclopedia II - Penang Hokkien - Tones

The Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest. The forebearers of the Hakka came from present-day Henan and Shaanxi provinces, and brought with them features of dialects spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then the speech in those regions evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin.) The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants -p -t -k, as are found in other modern southern Chinese dialects, but these have ...

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Hakka linguistics, Hakka linguistics - Name, Hakka linguistics - History, Hakka linguistics - Linguistic development, Hakka linguistics - Hakka phonology, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen dialect initials, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen rimes, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen tones, Hakka linguistics - Tone Sandhi in Moiyen Hakka, Hakka linguistics - Other dialects of Hakka, Hakka linguistics - Hakka Vocabulary, Hakka linguistics - Writing systems

Read more here: » Hakka linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Hakka linguistics - History

The Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest. The forebearers of the Hakka came from present-day Henan and Shaanxi provinces, and brought with them features of dialects spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin.) The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants -p -t -k, as are found in other modern southern Chinese dialects, but these have ...

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Hakka linguistics, Hakka linguistics - Name, Hakka linguistics - History, Hakka linguistics - Linguistic development, Hakka linguistics - Hakka phonology, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen dialect initials, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen rimes, Hakka linguistics - Moiyen tones, Hakka linguistics - Tone Sandhi in Moiyen Hakka, Hakka linguistics - Other dialects of Hakka, Hakka linguistics - Hakka Vocabulary, Hakka linguistics - Writing systems

Read more here: » Hakka linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Hakka linguistics - History

Guaraní is, alongside Spanish, one of the official languages of Paraguay. Thus, for example, Paraguay's constitution is bilingual, and its state-produced textbooks are typically half in Spanish and half in Guaraní. This policy seems to suggest that the two languages are "separate but equal". Nonetheless, the two languages have a very complicated relationship. In practice, almost nobody in Paraguay speaks "pure Spanish" or "pure Guaraní", but rather a combination which varies according to the social class, lifestyle and racial origi ...

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Guaraní language, Guaraní language - Guaraní in Paraguay, Guaraní language - History, Guaraní language - Writing system, Guaraní language - Phonology, Guaraní language - Nasal Sandhi, Guaraní language - Grammar, Guaraní language - Pronouns, Guaraní language - Conjugation, Guaraní language - Tense and Aspect Morphemes, Guaraní language - Guaraní loans to English

Read more here: » Guaraní language: Encyclopedia II - Guaraní language - Guaraní in Paraguay

Phonetically, Taiwanese is a tonal language with extensive tone sandhi rules. Syllables consist maximally of an initial consonant, a vowel, a final consonant, and a tone; any or all of the consonants or vowels may be nasal. Taiwanese linguistics - Consonants. The consonants as represented in Pe̍h-oē-jī are listed below, followed by their pronunciation in IPA: Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Standard Mandarin or Standard C ...

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Taiwanese linguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Classification, Taiwanese linguistics - Phonetics, Taiwanese linguistics - Consonants, Taiwanese linguistics - Vowels, Taiwanese linguistics - Tones, Taiwanese linguistics - Syllabic structure, Taiwanese linguistics - Tone sandhi, Taiwanese linguistics - Vocabulary, Taiwanese linguistics - Grammar, Taiwanese linguistics - Scripts and orthographies, Taiwanese linguistics - Han characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Pe̍h-oē-jī orthography in Latin characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Computing, Taiwanese linguistics - Sociolinguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Regional variations, Taiwanese linguistics - Fluency, Taiwanese linguistics - Special literary and art forms, Taiwanese linguistics - Conceptualization and history, Taiwanese linguistics - Politics

Read more here: » Taiwanese linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Taiwanese linguistics - Phonetics

Finnish phonology - Plosives. /k/ voiceless velar plosive /p/ voiceless bilabial plosive /t/ voiceless dental plosive /d/ voiced alveolar plosive (also varies immensely by dialect, see below) The voiceless ...

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Finnish phonology, Finnish phonology - Vowels, Finnish phonology - Vowel phonemes, Finnish phonology - Consonants, Finnish phonology - Plosives, Finnish phonology - Fricatives, Finnish phonology - Nasals, Finnish phonology - Trills, Finnish phonology - Approximants, Finnish phonology - Consonant clusters, Finnish phonology - Consonant gradation, Finnish phonology - Other consonant alterations, Finnish phonology - Orthography, Finnish phonology - Velar nasal, Finnish phonology - Voiced plosives, Finnish phonology - Length, Finnish phonology - Stress, Finnish phonology - Sandhi

Read more here: » Finnish phonology: Encyclopedia II - Finnish phonology - Consonants

An Inuktitut syllable can begin with a single consonant or a vowel. Consonant clusters at the beginning of a syllable, like [st] or [pl], are impossible in Inuktitut. Syllables must also end in either a vowel or a stop consonant - /p/, /t/, /k/, or /q/ - except where consonant sandhi rules or other constraints on syllables within words modify the ending. The nucleus of an Inuktitut syllable can contain a single short vowel, a single long vowel or a diphthong. Triple length nuclei are not permitted in Inuktitut. For example, the Inukti ...

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Inuit language phonology and phonetics, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Vowels, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Consonants, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Intonation, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Syllables, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Consonant sandhi, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Alveolars, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Labials, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Velars, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Uvulars, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Non-phonemic voiced labials, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Fricatives, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Other systematic dialectical variations, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Consonant weakening in Qawariaq, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Palatalization in Inupiatun, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Assibilation, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Fricative substitution in western Nunavut, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Nasalization of word-final consonants in western dialects, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Retroflex consonants in western dialects, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Double consonant clusters in Nunavimmiutut, Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Glottal stops

Read more here: » Inuit language phonology and phonetics: Encyclopedia II - Inuit language phonology and phonetics - Syllables

All phonemes have distinctive length, except for /ʋ, d, j/. Some example sets of words: tuli = fire, tuuli = wind, tulli = customs muta = mud, muuta = other (partitive sg.), mutta = but A double 'hh' is rare, but possible, e.g. hihhuli "bigot". Whereas /ʋ/ and /j/ may appear as geminates when spoken (e.g. vauva [ʋɑuʋːɑ], raijata [rɑijːɑtɑ]), this distinction is not ...

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Finnish phonology, Finnish phonology - Vowels, Finnish phonology - Vowel phonemes, Finnish phonology - Consonants, Finnish phonology - Plosives, Finnish phonology - Fricatives, Finnish phonology - Nasals, Finnish phonology - Trills, Finnish phonology - Approximants, Finnish phonology - Consonant clusters, Finnish phonology - Consonant gradation, Finnish phonology - Other consonant alterations, Finnish phonology - Orthography, Finnish phonology - Velar nasal, Finnish phonology - Voiced plosives, Finnish phonology - Length, Finnish phonology - Stress, Finnish phonology - Sandhi

Read more here: » Finnish phonology: Encyclopedia II - Finnish phonology - Length

Finnish, like other Finno-Ugric languages as well as Turkish, has a pattern called vowel harmony that restricts the distribution of vowels in a word. Due to vowel harmony, only certain vowels can appear in a given word, according to the vowel in the root of the word. The vowels i and e are considered neutral (they can appear anywhere), but the front vowels y, ö and ä never mix with the back vowels u, o, and a in a single word (except across compound limits). For example, tyttö "girl" is permissible it only has front vowels, but *tytto is impossible ...

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Finnish phonology, Finnish phonology - Vowels, Finnish phonology - Vowel phonemes, Finnish phonology - Consonants, Finnish phonology - Plosives, Finnish phonology - Fricatives, Finnish phonology - Nasals, Finnish phonology - Trills, Finnish phonology - Approximants, Finnish phonology - Consonant clusters, Finnish phonology - Consonant gradation, Finnish phonology - Other consonant alterations, Finnish phonology - Orthography, Finnish phonology - Velar nasal, Finnish phonology - Voiced plosives, Finnish phonology - Length, Finnish phonology - Stress, Finnish phonology - Sandhi

Read more here: » Finnish phonology: Encyclopedia II - Finnish phonology - Vowels

Greek language - Some common words and phrases. Greek (man): Έλληνας, IPA /ˈe̞liˌnas/ Greek (woman): Ελληνίδα /ˌe̞liˈniða/ Greek (language): Ελληνικά /e̞ˌliniˈka/ hello: γεια /ʝa/ (informal, literally "health"), you say this only t ...

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Greek language, Greek language - History, Greek language - Classification, Greek language - Geographic distribution, Greek language - Official status, Greek language - Phonology, Greek language - Vowel sounds, Greek language - Consonants, Greek language - Sandhi rules, Greek language - Orthography, Greek language - Historical sound changes, Greek language - Grammar, Greek language - Writing system, Greek language - Examples, Greek language - Some common words and phrases, Greek language - The Iliad in Homeric Greek Lines 1-7, Greek language - The Lord's Prayer in Greek Matt. 6:9-13, Greek language - The Nicene Creed in Greek, Greek language - Literature, Greek language - Typography, Greek language - Lexica, Greek language - Spell checkers

Read more here: » Greek language: Encyclopedia II - Greek language - Examples

sandhya:

See sandhi.

(See also: sandhya, Hinduism, Hinduism Dictionary, Sanskrit Dictionary, Body Mind and Soul)

Taiwanese is a variant of Min-nan which is spoken in Taiwan. Taiwanese is often seen as a Chinese dialect within a larger Chinese language. On the other hand, it may also be seen as a language in the Sino-Tibetan family. As with most "language or dialect?" distinctions, how one describes Taiwanese depends largely on one's political views (See Identification of the varieties of Chinese). In any case, the classification may be represented hierarchically as: Sino-Tibetan ⊃ ...

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Taiwanese linguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Classification, Taiwanese linguistics - Phonetics, Taiwanese linguistics - Consonants, Taiwanese linguistics - Vowels, Taiwanese linguistics - Tones, Taiwanese linguistics - Syllabic structure, Taiwanese linguistics - Tone sandhi, Taiwanese linguistics - Vocabulary, Taiwanese linguistics - Grammar, Taiwanese linguistics - Scripts and orthographies, Taiwanese linguistics - Han characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Pe̍h-oē-jī orthography in Latin characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Computing, Taiwanese linguistics - Sociolinguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Regional variations, Taiwanese linguistics - Fluency, Taiwanese linguistics - Special literary and art forms, Taiwanese linguistics - Conceptualization and history, Taiwanese linguistics - Politics

Read more here: » Taiwanese linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Taiwanese linguistics - Classification

The grammar of Taiwanese is similar to southern Chinese languages such as Hakka and Cantonese. The sequence 'subject verb object' is typical as in (say) Mandarin, but 'subject object verb' or the passive voice (with the sequence 'object subject verb') is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: "I hold you." The words involved are: goá ("I" or "me"), phō ("to hold"), lí ("you"). Subject verb object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: Goá phō lí. ...

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Taiwanese linguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Classification, Taiwanese linguistics - Phonetics, Taiwanese linguistics - Consonants, Taiwanese linguistics - Vowels, Taiwanese linguistics - Tones, Taiwanese linguistics - Syllabic structure, Taiwanese linguistics - Tone sandhi, Taiwanese linguistics - Vocabulary, Taiwanese linguistics - Grammar, Taiwanese linguistics - Scripts and orthographies, Taiwanese linguistics - Han characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Pe̍h-oē-jī orthography in Latin characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Computing, Taiwanese linguistics - Sociolinguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Regional variations, Taiwanese linguistics - Fluency, Taiwanese linguistics - Special literary and art forms, Taiwanese linguistics - Conceptualization and history, Taiwanese linguistics - Politics

Read more here: » Taiwanese linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Taiwanese linguistics - Grammar

Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75 % to 90 %) Taiwanese words have cognates in other Chinese languages. False friends do exist; for example, cháu means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the Mandarin cognate, zǒu, means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different lexical categories; for example, the morpheme phīⁿ means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin bí ...

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Taiwanese linguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Classification, Taiwanese linguistics - Phonetics, Taiwanese linguistics - Consonants, Taiwanese linguistics - Vowels, Taiwanese linguistics - Tones, Taiwanese linguistics - Syllabic structure, Taiwanese linguistics - Tone sandhi, Taiwanese linguistics - Vocabulary, Taiwanese linguistics - Grammar, Taiwanese linguistics - Scripts and orthographies, Taiwanese linguistics - Han characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Pe̍h-oē-jī orthography in Latin characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Computing, Taiwanese linguistics - Sociolinguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Regional variations, Taiwanese linguistics - Fluency, Taiwanese linguistics - Special literary and art forms, Taiwanese linguistics - Conceptualization and history, Taiwanese linguistics - Politics

Read more here: » Taiwanese linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Taiwanese linguistics - Vocabulary

Taiwanese linguistics - Han characters. In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the script called Han characters as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanese and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Mandarin-Taiwanese bilingual speakers sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting ...

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Taiwanese linguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Classification, Taiwanese linguistics - Phonetics, Taiwanese linguistics - Consonants, Taiwanese linguistics - Vowels, Taiwanese linguistics - Tones, Taiwanese linguistics - Syllabic structure, Taiwanese linguistics - Tone sandhi, Taiwanese linguistics - Vocabulary, Taiwanese linguistics - Grammar, Taiwanese linguistics - Scripts and orthographies, Taiwanese linguistics - Han characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Pe̍h-oē-jī orthography in Latin characters, Taiwanese linguistics - Computing, Taiwanese linguistics - Sociolinguistics, Taiwanese linguistics - Regional variations, Taiwanese linguistics - Fluency, Taiwanese linguistics - Special literary and art forms, Taiwanese linguistics - Conceptualization and history, Taiwanese linguistics - Politics

Read more here: » Taiwanese linguistics: Encyclopedia II - Taiwanese linguistics - Scripts and orthographies