The latter half of the first century BCE witnessed the close of the Republican era. Cicero was idealistic regarding his aspirations for the continuation of the Republic. He was a practical statesman however his career was marked by inconstancies and policy shifts to suit the changing political climate he remained the Republic’s genuine champion. This is not surprising though for a politician in turbulent times. This inconsistency was a constant theme throughout his life, as he often equated “his own problems with the ills of the republic ...

Including:

• Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Background and its Political Effects
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Vision
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - Problems in Rome
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - Political Instability
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - Economic Factors
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - Rome's Political Structure and its effects
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Civil War
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Effects of the Civil War and Cicero
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Philipics
• Cicero and the Roman Republic - A Summation of Cicero's Relationship with the Republic

Read more here: » Cicero and the Roman Republic: Encyclopedia - Cicero and the Roman Republic

See also:

Roman Republic, Roman Republic - Government institutions, Roman Republic - History of the Roman Republic, Roman Republic - The legendary founding of Rome — 753 BC, Roman Republic - The establishment of the Republic — 510 BC, Roman Republic - Patricians and plebeians, Roman Republic - The building of the Republic, Roman Republic - The Punic Wars, Roman Republic - The conquest of Greece and Asia, Roman Republic - Beginning of the end, Roman Republic - Marius and the Dictatorship of Sulla, Roman Republic - The Seventies and the Sixties, Roman Republic - The First Triumvirate, Roman Republic - The Civil War and Caesar's dictatorship, Roman Republic - The Second Triumvirate and Octavian's triumph, Roman Republic - Causes of the subversion of the Republic into the Empire, Roman Republic - Figures of the Republic, Roman Republic - Early Republic, Roman Republic - Late Republic, Roman Republic - Latin literature of the Republic, Roman Republic - Tourist resorts of the Republic

Read more here: » Roman Republic: Encyclopedia II - Roman Republic - History of the Roman Republic

Roman Republic - Early Republic. Lucretia Lucius Junius Brutus Cincinnatus Appius Claudius the Censor Samnite wars Punic wars, Carthage, Hannibal and Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major Scipio Aemilianus Cato the Censor Macedonian wars Roman Republic - Late Republic. Ahenobarbus family Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus Gaius Marius and Luciu ...

See also:

Roman Republic, Roman Republic - Government institutions, Roman Republic - History of the Roman Republic, Roman Republic - The legendary founding of Rome — 753 BC, Roman Republic - The establishment of the Republic — 510 BC, Roman Republic - Patricians and plebeians, Roman Republic - The building of the Republic, Roman Republic - The Punic Wars, Roman Republic - The conquest of Greece and Asia, Roman Republic - Beginning of the end, Roman Republic - Marius and the Dictatorship of Sulla, Roman Republic - The Seventies and the Sixties, Roman Republic - The First Triumvirate, Roman Republic - The Civil War and Caesar's dictatorship, Roman Republic - The Second Triumvirate and Octavian's triumph, Roman Republic - Causes of the subversion of the Republic into the Empire, Roman Republic - Figures of the Republic, Roman Republic - Early Republic, Roman Republic - Late Republic, Roman Republic - Latin literature of the Republic, Roman Republic - Tourist resorts of the Republic

Read more here: » Roman Republic: Encyclopedia II - Roman Republic - Figures of the Republic

Consul - Early Republic. After the mythical expulsion of the last Etruscan King Tarquinius Superbus and the ending of the Roman Kingdom, all the powers and authority of the King were alledgedly given to the newly instituted Consulship. However, it is likely that first the chief magistrates were the Praetors. The office of Consul was believed to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC but the succession of Consuls is not continuous in the 5th century. Consuls had extensive competences ...

See also:

Consul, Consul - Roman Republic, Consul - Early Republic, Consul - Consular Dating, Consul - Late Republic and Augustus, Consul - Lists of Roman Consuls, Consul - Other uses in Antiquity, Consul - Other city states, Consul - Private sphere, Consul - In Feudal times, Consul - Modern republics, Consul - French republican consuls, Consul - Roman republican consuls, Consul - Paraguay, Consul - partitioned revolutionary Greece, Consul - Sources and References

Read more here: » Consul: Encyclopedia II - Consul - Roman Republic

Roman Mythology Jupiter Mars Quirinus Divus Julius Divus Augustus Juno Vesta Minerva Mercury Vulcan Ceres Venus Diana Lares Fortuna Aeneas Romulus Numa Early Kings Pontifex Maximus Rex Sacrorum Vestal Virgins Flamen Dialis The F ...

Including:

• Roman religion - Early Roman religion
• Roman religion - Late republic and imperial religion
• Roman religion - Absorption of other religions
• Roman religion - Religious festivals
• Roman religion - Decline of the Roman religion

Read more here: » Roman religion: Encyclopedia - Roman religion

Censor was the name of two magistrates of high rank in the Roman Republic. Their office was called censura. From early in the Republic, they were responsible for maintaining the census, which was a register of Roman citizens and of their property, and to supervise publice morality and certain aspects of finance. Censor - Creation of the rank. The census was first established by Servius Tullius, the fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings it was taken by the consuls until 443 BC. I ...

Including:

• Censor - Creation of the rank
• Censor - Election
• Censor - Attributes
• Censor - Abolition
• Censor - Duties
• Censor - Census
• Censor - Regimen morum
• Censor - Administration of the finances of the state
• Censor - Lustrum

Read more here: » Censor: Encyclopedia - Censor

The cursus honorum (Latin: "succession of magistracies") was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The cursus honorum comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had a minimum age for election. There were minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office. These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last cent ...

Including:

• Cursus honorum - Military Tribune
• Cursus honorum - Quaestor
• Cursus honorum - Aediles
• Cursus honorum - Praetor
• Cursus honorum - Consul
• Cursus honorum - Governor
• Cursus honorum - Censor
• Cursus honorum - Tribune of the Plebs
• Cursus honorum - Princeps Senatus
• Cursus honorum - Dictator and Master of the Horse
• Cursus honorum - External link

Read more here: » Cursus honorum: Encyclopedia - Cursus honorum

The Cimbri were a Proto-Germanic tribe who according to Pliny the Elder lived on Jutland (Chersonesus Cimbrica), and the Jutish region of Himmerland (where the contemporary Gundestrup cauldron was found) is thought to preserve their name (cf. Grimm's law, K->H). The name has been analysed as the name kimme meaning "rim", i.e. the people of the coast[1], but there is also the hypothesis that the name is related to that of the Cimmerians. Charles Kingsley links the name to the word "Champ(ion)" which gives us the ...

Including:

• Cimbri - Moving south-east
• Cimbri - Invading Gaul
• Cimbri - Attacking the Roman Republic
• Cimbri - Defeat
• Cimbri - Culture

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In the late third century BC, Rome started to rely upon its allies as cavalry men, and in the second century BC, this development continued. As a result, the equestrian centuries lost their military function. The elite of the Roman Republic still called itself Eques, but like a knighthood today, it did not mean that one really fought on horseback, but more of a title of nobility. At the same time, the Roman elite slowly started to change. Always, the Equestrians had been wealthy and had governed the provinces. Words like kni ...

See also:

Equestrian Roman, Equestrian Roman - Origins, Equestrian Roman - Creation in the Republic, Equestrian Roman - Reforms in the Empire

Read more here: » Equestrian Roman: Encyclopedia II - Equestrian Roman - Creation in the Republic

Cicero and the Roman Republic - Political Instability. Increasing instability and violence marked the final years of the Republic. This trend, initiated by the Gracchi in the second century BCE, and Sulla’s proscriptions in the late 80’s, ended centuries of relatively peaceful governance. This kind of violent and sensationalist politics only sought to inflame tensions within Roman society, namely the poor and the disenfranchised. However, despite potential for revolution within the lower ranks, revolution itself only threatened twice before the ...

See also:

Cicero and the Roman Republic, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Background and its Political Effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Vision, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Problems in Rome, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Political Instability, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Economic Factors, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Rome's Political Structure and its effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Civil War, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Effects of the Civil War and Cicero, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Philipics, Cicero and the Roman Republic - A Summation of Cicero's Relationship with the Republic

Read more here: » Cicero and the Roman Republic: Encyclopedia II - Cicero and the Roman Republic - Problems in Rome

Cicero was a shrewd politician and recognised that the end of the Republic was near certain. He stated that “the Republic, the Senate, the law courts are mere ciphers and that not one of us has any constitutional position at all.” The civil war had destroyed the Republic. It wreaked destruction and decimated resources throughout the Empire. Julius Caesar’s victory had been absolute. His time as dictator demonstrated the stability of “long settled, [and] orderly government” which the plebs appreciated after decades of volatile polit ...

See also:

Cicero and the Roman Republic, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Background and its Political Effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Vision, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Problems in Rome, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Political Instability, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Economic Factors, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Rome's Political Structure and its effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Civil War, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Effects of the Civil War and Cicero, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Philipics, Cicero and the Roman Republic - A Summation of Cicero's Relationship with the Republic

Read more here: » Cicero and the Roman Republic: Encyclopedia II - Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Effects of the Civil War and Cicero

It is important to remember that Cicero’s vision for the Republic did not simply translate to the maintenance of the status quo. Furthermore, it was not a straightforward desire to revitalise what many, such as Sallust, term the ‘moral degradation’ of the Republican system. Cicero envisaged “Rome as a selfless nobility of successful individuals determining the fate of the nation via consensus in the Senate.” Cicero’s Middle class heritage resulted in a broader outlook, which was not marred by self-interested motives. Cicer ...

See also:

Cicero and the Roman Republic, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Background and its Political Effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Vision, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Problems in Rome, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Political Instability, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Economic Factors, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Rome's Political Structure and its effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Civil War, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Effects of the Civil War and Cicero, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Philipics, Cicero and the Roman Republic - A Summation of Cicero's Relationship with the Republic

Read more here: » Cicero and the Roman Republic: Encyclopedia II - Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Vision

In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular army (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide a legion to support each Roman legion. However, at the end of the 2nd century BC Marius reformed the legions to be a professional force drawing from the poorest classes, enabling Rome to field larger armies and providing employment for jobless citizens. However this put the loyalty of the soldiers in the hands of their general rather t ...

See also:

Roman legion, Roman legion - Early history, Roman legion - Organization, Roman legion - Marian Legions, Roman legion - Auxiliaries, Roman legion - Siege artillery, Roman legion - Legionary Officers, Roman legion - Senior Officers, Roman legion - Mid-Level Officers, Roman legion - Low-Level Officers, Roman legion - Symbols, Roman legion - Later history, Roman legion - Locations of the Roman legions in AD 80, Roman legion - Life in the Legions, Roman legion - Discipline, Roman legion - References and further reading, Roman legion - Notes, Roman legion - Related articles

Read more here: » Roman legion: Encyclopedia II - Roman legion - Organization

In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular army (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide a legion to support each Roman legion. However, at the end of the 2nd century BC Marius reformed the legions to be a professional force drawing from the poorest classes, enabling Rome to field larger armies and providing employment for jobless citizens. However this put the loyalty of the soldiers in the hands of their general rather t ...

See also:

Roman legion, Roman legion - Early history, Roman legion - Organization, Roman legion - Marian Legions, Roman legion - Auxiliaries, Roman legion - Siege artillery, Roman legion - Legionary Officers, Roman legion - Senior Officers, Roman legion - Mid-Level Officers, Roman legion - Low-Level Officers, Roman legion - Symbols, Roman legion - Later history, Roman legion - Locations of the Roman legions in AD 80, Roman legion - Legions under the Dominate, Roman legion - Life in the Legions, Roman legion - Discipline, Roman legion - References and further reading, Roman legion - Notes, Roman legion - Related articles

Read more here: » Roman legion: Encyclopedia II - Roman legion - Organization

Cicero's links with the Equestrian class, combined with his status as a novos homo meant that he was isolated from the optimates. Thus, it is not surprising that Cicero envisioned a “selfless nobility of successful individuals” instead of the current system dominated by the Patricians. The fact remains that those who sat in the Senate had appropriated huge profits by exploiting the provinces. Repeatedly, the oligarchy had proved to be shortsighted, reactionary and “operating with restricted and outmoded institutions could no longer cop ...

See also:

Cicero and the Roman Republic, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Background and its Political Effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Cicero's Vision, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Problems in Rome, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Political Instability, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Economic Factors, Cicero and the Roman Republic - Rome's Political Structure and its effects, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Civil War, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Effects of the Civil War and Cicero, Cicero and the Roman Republic - The Philipics, Cicero and the Roman Republic - A Summation of Cicero's Relationship with the Republic

Read more here: » Cicero and the Roman Republic: Encyclopedia II - Cicero and the Roman Republic - Rome's Political Structure and its effects

Roman Navy - Early history. The Romans were originally a land power based in the Italian mainland, and were wary of the sea. In the First Punic War (264 BC - 241 BC), the Carthaginians, a power rooted in sea trade, were able to exploit their strength at sea in their struggles with the Roman Republic. Since most of the conflict in the war was overseas (especially in Sicily), Rome saw that it needed to build a fleet in order to develop an effective military response. The result was the rapid construct ...

See also:

Roman Navy, Roman Navy - History, Roman Navy - Early history, Roman Navy - Late Republic, Roman Navy - Major events, Roman Navy - Admirals, Roman Navy - Roman Navy composition, Roman Navy - Fleets, Roman Navy - Ports

Read more here: » Roman Navy: Encyclopedia II - Roman Navy - History

In the late republic, the cohort of which there were six to ten, became the basic tactical unit of the legions. The cohort was composed of five to eight centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio, a soldier who could read and write. The senior centurion of the legion was called the primus pilus, a career soldier and advisor to the legate. Under the Marian (named after Gaius Marius) reforms, the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type of Legionary based on the Princi ...

See also:

Roman legion, Roman legion - Early history, Roman legion - Organization, Roman legion - Marian Legions, Roman legion - Auxiliaries, Roman legion - Siege artillery, Roman legion - Legionary Officers, Roman legion - Senior Officers, Roman legion - Mid-Level Officers, Roman legion - Low-Level Officers, Roman legion - Symbols, Roman legion - Later history, Roman legion - Locations of the Roman legions in AD 80, Roman legion - Legions under the Dominate, Roman legion - Life in the Legions, Roman legion - Discipline, Roman legion - References and further reading, Roman legion - Notes, Roman legion - Related articles

Read more here: » Roman legion: Encyclopedia II - Roman legion - Marian Legions

As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became associated with Greek gods. Therefore Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus. Mars was associated with Ares and Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and myth of these Greek gods. The transference of the anthropomorphic qualities to Roman Gods, and the prevalence of Greek philosophy among well-educated Romans, brought about an increasing neglect of the old rites, and in the 1st century BC the religious importance of the old priestly ...

See also:

Roman religion, Roman religion - Early Roman religion, Roman religion - Late republic and imperial religion, Roman religion - Absorption of other religions, Roman religion - Religious festivals, Roman religion - Decline of the Roman religion

Read more here: » Roman religion: Encyclopedia II - Roman religion - Late republic and imperial religion

The distinctions among philosophy, religion, cult and superstition that would be made by an educated Roman of the 1st century BC can be read in Lucretius, a philosopher following Epicurus. Most educated Romans were Stoic in the outlook on life. The transference of the anthropomorphic qualities of Greek gods to Roman ones, and perhaps even more, the prevalence of Greek philosophy among well-educated Romans, brought about an increasing neglect of the old rites, and in the 1st century BC the religious importance of the old priestly offices decl ...

See also:

Roman religion, Roman religion - Early Roman religion, Roman religion - Late republic and imperial religion, Roman religion - Absorption of other religions, Roman religion - Religious festivals, Roman religion - Decline of the Roman religion

Read more here: » Roman religion: Encyclopedia II - Roman religion - Decline of the Roman religion

Following the Punic wars, the Roman army entered into a period of crisis. The wars had become so frequent and far flung that the militia of citizen soldiers became effectively a regular army, with troops spending years away from their homes and families. The demands of military duty forced many farmers to abandon working their lands only to return impoverished. Most were then forced to sell their lands to or take out loans from wealthy Patrician landowners, who would end up owning their lands and working them with cheap slave labor. This cre ...

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Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations, Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - The King's age and the early Republic, Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - Types of infantry, Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - The late republic to the empire, Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - Training, Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - Formations and tactics, Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - Roman strategies, Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - The Tetrarchy and late roman empire

Read more here: » Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations: Encyclopedia II - Roman infantry tactics strategy and battle formations - The late republic to the empire