GEOS was another very early graphical desktop system. Originally written for the 8 bit home computer Commodore 64 it was later ported to IBM PC systems. It came with several application programs like a calendar and word processor, and a cut-down version served as the basis for America Online's DOS client. Compared to the competing Windows 3.0 GUI, it could run reasonably well on simpler hardware. Revivals were seen in the HP OmniGo handhelds, Brother GeoBook line of laptop-appliances, and the New Deal Office package for PCs. Related c ...

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History of the graphical user interface, History of the graphical user interface - Initial Developments, History of the graphical user interface - Augmentation of Human Intellect NLS, History of the graphical user interface - Xerox PARC, History of the graphical user interface - Apple Lisa and Macintosh, History of the graphical user interface - DESQview, History of the graphical user interface - GEM, History of the graphical user interface - Amiga Intuition, History of the graphical user interface - Microsoft Windows, History of the graphical user interface - GEOS, History of the graphical user interface - RISC OS, History of the graphical user interface - NeXTSTEP, History of the graphical user interface - OS/2, History of the graphical user interface - BeOS, History of the graphical user interface - NeWS, History of the graphical user interface - The X Window System, History of the graphical user interface - Mac OS X, History of the graphical user interface - Windows Vista, History of the graphical user interface - Trivia

Read more here: » History of the graphical user interface: Encyclopedia II - History of the graphical user interface - GEOS

The standard windowing system in the Unix world, developed in the early 1980s, is the X Window System (commonly X11 or X). X was developed at MIT as Project Athena. Its original purpose was to allow users of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations, without regard to the workstation's operating system or the hardware. Due largely to the availability of the source code used to write X, it has become the standard layer for management of graphical and input/output devices and for the building of both local and remote gra ...

See also:

History of the graphical user interface, History of the graphical user interface - Initial Developments, History of the graphical user interface - Augmentation of Human Intellect NLS, History of the graphical user interface - Xerox PARC, History of the graphical user interface - Apple Lisa and Macintosh, History of the graphical user interface - DESQview, History of the graphical user interface - GEM, History of the graphical user interface - Amiga Intuition, History of the graphical user interface - Microsoft Windows, History of the graphical user interface - GEOS, History of the graphical user interface - RISC OS, History of the graphical user interface - NeXTSTEP, History of the graphical user interface - OS/2, History of the graphical user interface - BeOS, History of the graphical user interface - NeWS, History of the graphical user interface - The X Window System, History of the graphical user interface - Mac OS X, History of the graphical user interface - Windows Vista, History of the graphical user interface - Trivia

Read more here: » History of the graphical user interface: Encyclopedia II - History of the graphical user interface - The X Window System

Optimization can reduce readability and add code that is used only to improve the performance. This may complicate programs or systems, making them harder to maintain and debug. Compiler optimization, for example, may introduce odd behavior because of compiler bugs. Because of this, optimization or performance tuning must be done at the end of the development stage. Premature optimization occurs when a programmer lets performance considerations affect how he/she designs a piece of code, before getting the design right. This ...

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Optimization computer science, Optimization computer science - Basis, Optimization computer science - Tradeoff, Optimization computer science - Different fields, Optimization computer science - Bottlenecks, Optimization computer science - When to optimize, Optimization computer science - Interpreted languages, Optimization computer science - Automated and manual optimization, Optimization computer science - Time taken for optimization, Optimization computer science - Techniques, Optimization computer science - Quotes, Optimization computer science - Subpages

Read more here: » Optimization computer science: Encyclopedia II - Optimization computer science - When to optimize

Windows Vista, Microsoft's next-generation operating system - planned for release in late 2006, and currently in beta - will feature a significantly different GUI from previous Windows versions. The new user interface, dubbed Aero, is split into two modes: Windows Vista Aero and Windows Vista Basic. The Windows Vista Aero mode will use pixel shader effects - commonly used in games such as Half-Life 2 and Doom 3 to draw effects such as water - and alpha PNG transparency to draw windows and give a "Glass" effect. The Windows Vista Basic mode i ...

See also:

History of the graphical user interface, History of the graphical user interface - Initial Developments, History of the graphical user interface - Augmentation of Human Intellect NLS, History of the graphical user interface - Xerox PARC, History of the graphical user interface - Apple Lisa and Macintosh, History of the graphical user interface - DESQview, History of the graphical user interface - GEM, History of the graphical user interface - Amiga Intuition, History of the graphical user interface - Microsoft Windows, History of the graphical user interface - GEOS, History of the graphical user interface - RISC OS, History of the graphical user interface - NeXTSTEP, History of the graphical user interface - OS/2, History of the graphical user interface - BeOS, History of the graphical user interface - NeWS, History of the graphical user interface - The X Window System, History of the graphical user interface - Mac OS X, History of the graphical user interface - Windows Vista, History of the graphical user interface - Trivia

Read more here: » History of the graphical user interface: Encyclopedia II - History of the graphical user interface - Windows Vista

List of Unix programs - Office. AbiWord Gnumeric OpenOffice.org KOffice List of Unix programs - Multimedia. amaroK – Audio jukebox Audacity – Sound recording and editing program GIMP – Powerful image manipulation package GStreamer – Plugin-based multimedia framework ImageMagick – Image conversion library Inkscape – Vector graphics editor mpg123 – MP3 player

Eric S. Raymond, in his book The Art of Unix Programming, summarizes the Unix philosophy as the widely-used engineering philosophy, "Keep it Simple, Stupid" (KISS Principle). He then describes how he believes this overall philosophy is applied as a cultural Unix norm, although unsurprisingly it is not difficult to find severe violations of most of the following in actual Unix practice: Rule of Modularity: Write simple parts connected by clean interfaces. Rule of Clarity: Clarity is better than cleverness. See also:

Unix philosophy, Unix philosophy - McIlroy: A Quarter Century of Unix, Unix philosophy - Pike: Notes on Programming in C, Unix philosophy - Mike Gancarz: The UNIX Philosophy, Unix philosophy - Worse is better, Unix philosophy - Raymond: The Art of Unix Programming, Unix philosophy - Quotes

Read more here: » Unix philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Unix philosophy - Raymond: The Art of Unix Programming

Unix-like systems use X almost universally for graphics. Nevertheless, some people have attempted writing alternatives to and replacements for X. Historical alternatives include Sun's NeWS, which failed in the market, and NeXT's Display PostScript, which eventually became Apple's Quartz for Mac OS X. Modern attempts to address criticisms of X by replacing it completely include Berlin/Fresco and the Y Window System. These alternatives have seen negligible take-up, however, and commentators widely doubt the viability of any replacement that do ...

See also:

X Window System, X Window System - The X client-server model and network transparency, X Window System - Design principles of X, X Window System - User interfaces, X Window System - Implementations, X Window System - X terminals, X Window System - Limitations and criticisms of X, X Window System - Video hardware, X Window System - User interface features, X Window System - Network, X Window System - Competitors to X, X Window System - History, X Window System - Predecessors, X Window System - Origin and early development, X Window System - The MIT X Consortium and the X Consortium Inc., X Window System - The Open Group, X Window System - X.Org and XFree86, X Window System - The X.Org Foundation, X Window System - Future directions, X Window System - Nomenclature, X Window System - Release history

Read more here: » X Window System: Encyclopedia II - X Window System - Competitors to X

Due to the overlapping nature of the hacker concept space, many of these individuals could be included in more than one category. See also Hacker (computer security), which has a list of people in that category, including criminal and unethical hackers. Hacker - Recognized programmers. Mel Kaye — Near-legendary figure and the archetypal Real Programmer. He was credited with doing "the bulk of the programming" for the Royal McBee LGP-30 drum-memory computer in the 1950s. In the 1980s, Ed Nather, ano ...

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Hacker, Hacker - Categories of hacker, Hacker - Hacker: Computer and network security, Hacker - Hacker: Highly skilled programmer, Hacker - Hacker: Hardware modifier, Hacker - Recognized hackers, Hacker - Recognized programmers, Hacker - Security Experts, Hacker - Hardware modifiers, Hacker - Hacker media personalities, Hacker - Related books

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In 1994 Mike Gancarz combined his own experience with Unix (he is a member of the team that designed the X Window System) with the discussions he had with fellow programmers and with people in other fields who depended on Unix to produce The UNIX Philosophy. The UNIX Philosophy sums it up into 9 paramount prescripts: Small is beautiful. Make each program do one thing well. Build a prototype as soon as possible. Choose portability over efficiency. St ...

See also:

Unix philosophy, Unix philosophy - McIlroy: A Quarter Century of Unix, Unix philosophy - Pike: Notes on Programming in C, Unix philosophy - Mike Gancarz: The UNIX Philosophy, Unix philosophy - Worse is better, Unix philosophy - Raymond: The Art of Unix Programming, Unix philosophy - Quotes

Read more here: » Unix philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Unix philosophy - Mike Gancarz: The UNIX Philosophy

Rob Pike offers the following "rules" in Notes on Programming in C as programming maxims, though they can be easily viewed as points of a Unix philosophy: Rule 1: You cannot tell where a program is going to spend its time. Bottlenecks occur in surprising places, so do not try to second guess and put in a speed hack until you've proven that's where the bottleneck is. Rule 2: Measure. Do not tune for speed until you have measured, and even then don't unless one part of the code overwhelms the rest. Rule 3: ...

See also:

Unix philosophy, Unix philosophy - McIlroy: A Quarter Century of Unix, Unix philosophy - Pike: Notes on Programming in C, Unix philosophy - Mike Gancarz: The UNIX Philosophy, Unix philosophy - Worse is better, Unix philosophy - Raymond: The Art of Unix Programming, Unix philosophy - Quotes

Read more here: » Unix philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Unix philosophy - Pike: Notes on Programming in C

On some occasions, the time taken for optimization in itself may be an issue. In a software project, optimizing code usually does not add a new feature, and worse, it might break existing functionalities. Because optimized code has lesser readability then a straightforward code, optimization may well hurt the maintainability of the program as well. In short, optimization becomes a cost and it is important to be sure that the investment pays off. The optimizer (a program that does optimization) may have to be optimized as well. ...

See also:

Optimization computer science, Optimization computer science - Basis, Optimization computer science - Tradeoff, Optimization computer science - Different fields, Optimization computer science - Bottlenecks, Optimization computer science - When to optimize, Optimization computer science - Interpreted languages, Optimization computer science - Automated and manual optimization, Optimization computer science - Time taken for optimization, Optimization computer science - Techniques, Optimization computer science - Quotes, Optimization computer science - Subpages

Read more here: » Optimization computer science: Encyclopedia II - Optimization computer science - Time taken for optimization

Load balancing spreads the load over a large number of servers. Often load balancing is done transparently (i.e., without users noticing it), using a so-called layer 4 router. Caching stores intermediate products of computation to avoid duplicate computations. ...

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Optimization computer science, Optimization computer science - Basis, Optimization computer science - Tradeoff, Optimization computer science - Different fields, Optimization computer science - Bottlenecks, Optimization computer science - When to optimize, Optimization computer science - Interpreted languages, Optimization computer science - Automated and manual optimization, Optimization computer science - Time taken for optimization, Optimization computer science - Techniques, Optimization computer science - Quotes, Optimization computer science - Subpages

Read more here: » Optimization computer science: Encyclopedia II - Optimization computer science - Techniques

Doug McIlroy, the inventor of Unix pipes and one of the founders of the Unix tradition, summarized the philosophy as follows: "This is the Unix philosophy: Write programs that do one thing and do it well. Write programs to work together. Write programs to handle text streams, because that is a universal interface." This is usually severely abridged to "Do one thing, do it well." Of the three tenets, only the third is specific to Unix, though Unix de ...

See also:

Unix philosophy, Unix philosophy - McIlroy: A Quarter Century of Unix, Unix philosophy - Pike: Notes on Programming in C, Unix philosophy - Mike Gancarz: The UNIX Philosophy, Unix philosophy - Worse is better, Unix philosophy - Raymond: The Art of Unix Programming, Unix philosophy - Quotes

Read more here: » Unix philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Unix philosophy - McIlroy: A Quarter Century of Unix

Microsoft modeled the first version of Windows, released in 1985, on the GUI of the Mac OS. Windows 1.0 was a GUI (graphic user interface) for the MS-DOS operating system that had been the OS of choice for IBM PC and compatible computers since 1981. Windows 2.0 followed, but it wasn't until the 1990 launch of Windows 3.0 that its popularity truly exploded. The GUI has seen major and minor redesign since, notably the addition of Finder-like file-management to the desktop in Windows 95 ("Chicago"), the much-debated browser integration of Windows 98, and the c ...

See also:

History of the graphical user interface, History of the graphical user interface - Initial Developments, History of the graphical user interface - Augmentation of Human Intellect NLS, History of the graphical user interface - Xerox PARC, History of the graphical user interface - Apple Lisa and Macintosh, History of the graphical user interface - DESQview, History of the graphical user interface - GEM, History of the graphical user interface - Amiga Intuition, History of the graphical user interface - Microsoft Windows, History of the graphical user interface - GEOS, History of the graphical user interface - RISC OS, History of the graphical user interface - NeXTSTEP, History of the graphical user interface - OS/2, History of the graphical user interface - BeOS, History of the graphical user interface - NeWS, History of the graphical user interface - The X Window System, History of the graphical user interface - Mac OS X, History of the graphical user interface - Windows Vista, History of the graphical user interface - Trivia

Read more here: » History of the graphical user interface: Encyclopedia II - History of the graphical user interface - Microsoft Windows

Beginning in 1979, led by Jef Raskin, the Lisa and Macintosh teams at Apple Computer (which included former members of the Xerox PARC group) continued to develop such ideas. The Macintosh, released in 1984, was the first commercially successful product to use a GUI. A desktop metaphor was used, in which files looked like pieces of paper; directories looked like file folders; there were a set of desk accessories like a calculator, notepad, and alarm clock that the user could place around the screen ...

See also:

History of the graphical user interface, History of the graphical user interface - Initial Developments, History of the graphical user interface - Augmentation of Human Intellect NLS, History of the graphical user interface - Xerox PARC, History of the graphical user interface - Apple Lisa and Macintosh, History of the graphical user interface - DESQview, History of the graphical user interface - GEM, History of the graphical user interface - Amiga Intuition, History of the graphical user interface - Microsoft Windows, History of the graphical user interface - GEOS, History of the graphical user interface - RISC OS, History of the graphical user interface - NeXTSTEP, History of the graphical user interface - OS/2, History of the graphical user interface - BeOS, History of the graphical user interface - NeWS, History of the graphical user interface - The X Window System, History of the graphical user interface - Mac OS X, History of the graphical user interface - Windows Vista, History of the graphical user interface - Trivia

Read more here: » History of the graphical user interface: Encyclopedia II - History of the graphical user interface - Apple Lisa and Macintosh

X uses a client-server model: an X server communicates with various client programs. The server accepts requests for graphical output (windows) and sends back user input (from keyboard, mouse, or touchscreen). The server may function as any one of: an application displaying to a window of another display system a system program controlling the video output of a PC a dedicated piece of hardware. This client-server terminology — the user's terminal as the "server", the remote applica ...

See also:

X Window System, X Window System - The X client-server model and network transparency, X Window System - Design principles of X, X Window System - User interfaces, X Window System - Implementations, X Window System - X terminals, X Window System - Limitations and criticisms of X, X Window System - Video hardware, X Window System - User interface features, X Window System - Network, X Window System - Competitors to X, X Window System - History, X Window System - Predecessors, X Window System - Origin and early development, X Window System - The MIT X Consortium and the X Consortium Inc., X Window System - The Open Group, X Window System - X.Org and XFree86, X Window System - The X.Org Foundation, X Window System - Future directions, X Window System - Nomenclature, X Window System - Release history

Read more here: » X Window System: Encyclopedia II - X Window System - The X client-server model and network transparency

The Java programming language, which uses UTF-16 for its internal text representation, supports a non-standard modification of UTF-8 for string serialization. This encoding is called modified UTF-8. There are two differences between modified and standard UTF-8. The first difference is that the null character (U+0000) is encoded with two bytes instead of one, specifically as 11000000 10000000. This ensures that there are no embedded nulls in the encoded string, presumably to address the concern that if the encoded string is processed in a language such as C where a null byte signifies the end of a string, an embedded null ...

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UTF-8, UTF-8 - Description, UTF-8 - Modified UTF-8, UTF-8 - Rationale behind UTF-8's mechanics, UTF-8 - Overlong forms invalid input and security considerations, UTF-8 - Advantages and disadvantages, UTF-8 - History

Read more here: » UTF-8: Encyclopedia II - UTF-8 - Modified UTF-8

The encoding of UTF-8 is based loosely on Huffman coding, a way of representing frequency-sorted binary trees. As a consequence of the exact mechanics of UTF-8, the following properties of multi-byte sequences hold: The most significant bit of a single-byte character is always 0. The most significant bits of the first byte of a multi-byte sequence determine the length of the sequence. These most significant bits are 110 for two-byte sequences; 1110 for three-byte sequences, and so on. The remaining bytes in a multi-byte sequence hav ...

See also:

UTF-8, UTF-8 - Description, UTF-8 - Modified UTF-8, UTF-8 - Rationale behind UTF-8's mechanics, UTF-8 - Overlong forms invalid input and security considerations, UTF-8 - Advantages and disadvantages, UTF-8 - History

Read more here: » UTF-8: Encyclopedia II - UTF-8 - Rationale behind UTF-8's mechanics

In 1984, Bob Scheifler and Jim Gettys set out the early principles of X: Do not add new functionality unless an implementor cannot complete a real application without it. It is as important to decide what a system is not as to decide what it is. Do not serve all the world's needs; rather, make the system extensible so that additional needs can be met in an upwardly compatible fashion. The only thing worse than generalizing from one example is generalizing from no examples at all. < ...

See also:

X Window System, X Window System - The X client-server model and network transparency, X Window System - Design principles of X, X Window System - User interfaces, X Window System - Implementations, X Window System - X terminals, X Window System - Limitations and criticisms of X, X Window System - Video hardware, X Window System - User interface features, X Window System - Network, X Window System - Competitors to X, X Window System - History, X Window System - Predecessors, X Window System - Origin and early development, X Window System - The MIT X Consortium and the X Consortium Inc., X Window System - The Open Group, X Window System - X.Org and XFree86, X Window System - The X.Org Foundation, X Window System - Future directions, X Window System - Nomenclature, X Window System - Release history

Read more here: » X Window System: Encyclopedia II - X Window System - Design principles of X

X deliberately contains no specification as to application user interface, such as buttons, menus, window title bars and so on. Instead, user software - such as window managers, GUI widget toolkits and desktop environments, or application-specific GUIs, such as point of sale - provide/define all such details. As such, the "typical" X interface has varied tremendously over the years. A window manager controls the placement and appearance of application windows. This may have an interface akin to that of Microsoft Windows or of the Maci ...

See also:

X Window System, X Window System - The X client-server model and network transparency, X Window System - Design principles of X, X Window System - User interfaces, X Window System - Implementations, X Window System - X terminals, X Window System - Limitations and criticisms of X, X Window System - Video hardware, X Window System - User interface features, X Window System - Network, X Window System - Competitors to X, X Window System - History, X Window System - Predecessors, X Window System - Origin and early development, X Window System - The MIT X Consortium and the X Consortium Inc., X Window System - The Open Group, X Window System - X.Org and XFree86, X Window System - The X.Org Foundation, X Window System - Future directions, X Window System - Nomenclature, X Window System - Release history

Read more here: » X Window System: Encyclopedia II - X Window System - User interfaces

Unix-like systems use X almost universally for graphics. Nevertheless, some people have attempted writing alternatives to and replacements for X. Historical alternatives include Sun's NeWS, which failed in the market, and NeXT's Display PostScript, which was eventually turned into Apple's Quartz for Mac OS X. Modern attempts to address criticisms of X by replacing it completely include Berlin/Fresco and the Y Window System. These alternatives have seen negligible take-up, however, and the viability of any replacement that i ...

See also:

X Window System, X Window System - The X client-server model and network transparency, X Window System - Design principles of X, X Window System - User interfaces, X Window System - Implementations, X Window System - X terminals, X Window System - Limitations and criticisms of X, X Window System - Video hardware, X Window System - User interface features, X Window System - Network, X Window System - Competitors to X, X Window System - History, X Window System - Predecessors, X Window System - Origin and early development, X Window System - The MIT X Consortium and the X Consortium Inc., X Window System - The Open Group, X Window System - X.Org and XFree86, X Window System - The X.Org Foundation, X Window System - Future directions, X Window System - Nomenclature, X Window System - Release history

Read more here: » X Window System: Encyclopedia II - X Window System - Competitors to X