references

A citation is a credit or reference to another document or source which documents both influence and authority. There are many rules for the format and use of such citations in different fields: Varying rules and practices for citations apply in a science, a law, a theological citing of authority (e.g. the isnad which "back" the hadith in Islam), the prior art that applies in patent law, or marks applied in copyright. Definitions of plagiarism, uniqueness or innovation, trustworthiness or reliability vary so widely among ...

Including:

• Citation - Citation styles

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In computer science, a pointer is a programming language datatype whose value refers directly to ("points to") another value stored elsewhere in the computer memory using its address. Obtaining the value that a pointer refers to is called dereferencing the pointer. A pointer is a simple implementation of the general reference datatype (although it is quite different from the facility referred to as a reference in C++). Pointers are so commonly used as references that sometimes people use the word "pointer" to refe ...

Including:

• Pointer - Architectural roots
• Pointer - Uses
• Pointer - Examples of use
• Pointer - Typed pointers and casting
• Pointer - Making pointers safer
• Pointer - The null pointer
• Pointer - Wild pointers
• Pointer - Examples
• Pointer - Support in various programming languages
• Pointer - Ada
• Pointer - C/C++
• Pointer - C#
• Pointer - D
• Pointer - Modula-2
• Pointer - Oberon
• Pointer - Pascal

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In computing, an associative array, also known as a map, lookup table, or dictionary, is an abstract data type very closely related to the mathematical concept of a function with a finite domain. Conceptually, an associative array is composed of a collection of keys and a collection of values, and each key is associated with one value. The operation of finding the value associated with a key is called a lookup or indexing, and this is the most important operation supported by an associative array. The relationship between a key ...

Including:

• Associative array - Examples
• Associative array - Data structures for associative arrays
• Associative array - Efficient representations
• Associative array - Association lists
• Associative array - Specialized representations
• Associative array - Language support
• Associative array - Awk
• Associative array - C++
• Associative array - D
• Associative array - Java
• Associative array - JavaScript
• Associative array - Lisp
• Associative array - MUMPS
• Associative array - OCaml
• Associative array - Perl
• Associative array - PHP
• Associative array - Python
• Associative array - Smalltalk
• Associative array - TCL

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In computer science, an immutable object, as opposed to a mutable object, is a kind of object whose internal state cannot be modified after it is created. An object can be either entirely immutable or some attributes in the object may be declared immutable, as in C++'s const member data attribute. In some cases, an object is considered immutable even if some internally used attributes change but the object's state appears to be unchanging from an external point of view. For example, an object that uses memoization to cache the ...

Including:

• Immutable object - Background
• Immutable object - Implementation
• Immutable object - Example
• Immutable object - Usage

Read more here: » Immutable object: Encyclopedia - Immutable object

In, object-oriented programming, a class consists of a description of a collection of encapsulated instance variables and methods, possibly with implementation of those types together with a constructor function that can be used to create objects of the class. A class is a cohesive package that consists of a particular kind of compile-time metadata. A Class describes the rules by which objects behave; these objects are referred to as "instances" of that class. A class specifies the structure of data which each instance contains as wel ...

Including:

• Class computer science - Interfaces
• Class computer science - Structure of a class
• Class computer science - Associations between classes
• Class computer science - Local classes
• Class computer science - Partial classes
• Class computer science - Subclasses and superclasses
• Class computer science - Reasons for implementing classes
• Class computer science - Categories of classes
• Class computer science - Abstract and concrete classes
• Class computer science - Metaclasses
• Class computer science - Non-class-based programming
• Class computer science - Run-time representation of classes
• Class computer science - Classes without inheritance
• Class computer science - Instantiation
• Class computer science - Examples
• Class computer science - C++
• Class computer science - Java

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Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of very old forms of Chinese , making it very different from any modern spoken form of Chinese. Classical Chinese was once used for almost all formal correspondence before the 20th century, not only in China but also in Korea, Vietnam and Japan. Among Chinese speakers, classical Chinese has been largely replaced by Vernacular Chinese (baihua), a style of writing that is closer to modern spoken Chinese, while speakers of non-Chinese languages have largely ab ...

Including:

• Classical Chinese - Definitions
• Classical Chinese - Pronunciation
• Classical Chinese - Grammar and Lexicon
• Classical Chinese - Teaching and Use

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In computer science, a value may be a number, literal string, array and anything that can be treated as if it were a number. In other words, label, subprogram, datatype, inheritance and control flow are not values in general. The exact definition varies across programming languages. Variables and subprogram calling sites are mostly treated as if they are values. The distinction from object is subtle but one can say that objects include the private memory storage referred to by targets of references while values are independent ...

Including:

• Value computer science - In C: L-value and r-value
• Value computer science - In assembly language

Read more here: » Value computer science: Encyclopedia - Value computer science

In computer programming, an array, also known as a vector or list, is one of the simplest data structures. Arrays hold a series of data elements, usually of the same size and data type. Individual elements are accessed by index using a consecutive range of integers, as opposed to an associative array. Some arrays are multi-dimensional, meaning they are indexed by a fixed number of integers, for example by a tuple of four integers. Generally, one- and ...

Including:

• Array - Advantages and disadvantages
• Array - Uses
• Array - Indices into arrays
• Array - Multi-dimensional arrays

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Data General was one of the first minicomputer firms from the late 1960s. Three of the four founders were former employees of Digital Equipment Corporation. Their first product, the Nova, was a 16-bit minicomputer which was an advance in technology in the era of 8-bit machines. The Nova, followed by the Supernova, and the Eclipse product lines, were used in many applications for the next two decades. The company employed an OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) sales stratey to sell to third parties who incorporated the Data General c ...

Including:

• Data General - History
• Data General - Origin founding and early years: The Nova and SuperNova
• Data General - Late 70s to late 80s: Crisis and a short term solution
• Data General - Data General-One
• Data General - Lock-in or no lock-in?
• Data General - AViiON
• Data General - The final downturn and the takeover by EMC; life after death
• Data General - Software
• Data General - Notable alumni

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In computer science, a data structure is a way of storing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Often a carefully chosen data structure will allow a more efficient algorithm to be used. The choice of the data structure often begins from the choice of an abstract data structure. A well-designed data structure allows a variety of critical operations to be performed, using as little resource ...

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The Urban Legends Reference Pages, also known as snopes.com, is a website dedicated to determining the truth about many urban legends, modern-day myths and other such stories of uncertain or questionable origin. Snopes is run by Barbara and David Mikkelson, a couple from California who met on the newsgroup alt.folklore.urban and married. The site is organized according to topic and includes a ...

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Christopher Alexander coined the term pattern language. He used it to refer to common problems of civil and architectural design, from how cities should be laid out to where windows should be placed in a room. The idea was initially popularized in his book A Pattern Language. Alexander's book The Timeless Way of Building describes what he means by pattern language and how it applies to the design and construction of buildings and towns. However, the system is ...

See also:

Pattern language, Pattern language - Origin, Pattern language - What is a pattern?, Pattern language - Many patterns form a language, Pattern language - Usage, Pattern language - How to document a single pattern, Pattern language - Simple example of a pattern, Pattern language - Pattern language and wikis, Pattern language - Tips for making a pattern language

Read more here: » Pattern language: Encyclopedia II - Pattern language - Origin

Latin place names are not always exclusive to one place — for example, there were several Roman cities whose names began with Colonia and then a more descriptive term. During the Middle Ages, these were often shortened to just Colonia. One of these, Colonia Agrippinensis, retains the name today in the form of Cologne. Early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and spellings of the Latin names. The modern canonical name is listed first. Sources are listed chronologically. In general, only the ear ...

See also:

List of Latin place names in Continental Europe, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Background, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Caveats and notes, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Austria, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Belgium, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Czech Republic, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Denmark, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Finland, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in France, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Germany, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Hungary, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Latvia, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Malta, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Monaco, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Netherlands, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Norway, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Poland, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Russia, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Slovakia, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Sweden, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Switzerland, List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Cities and towns in Ukraine

Read more here: » List of Latin place names in Continental Europe: Encyclopedia II - List of Latin place names in Continental Europe - Caveats and notes

Information about Thorpe's place of birth, date of birth and full name vary widely. What is known is that he was born in Indian Territory (the future State of Oklahoma, but no birth certificate has been found. According to the findings of Bill Mallon (see references), Thorpe was born on May 28, 1887 (other sources state 1888) near the town of Shawnee, Oklahoma (not Prague, Oklahoma, as often seen). His full name is often said to be James Francis Thorpe, but this cannot be confirmed; "Jacobus Franciscus Thorpe" is ...

See also:

Jim Thorpe, Jim Thorpe - Early life, Jim Thorpe - A rising star, Jim Thorpe - An Olympic hero, Jim Thorpe - Declared a professional, Jim Thorpe - Baseball football and basketball, Jim Thorpe - Later life and death, Jim Thorpe - Legacy, Jim Thorpe - Reinstated

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In contrast to imaginary antecedent, an imaginary consequent is a conclusion known to be false, fictional, or unconditional. In a conditional statement, a fictional conclusion is known as a non sequitur, which literally means 'out of sequence.' A conclusion that is out of sequence is not contingent upon a premise it does not follow, so such a sequence is not conditional. A conditional sequence is a connected series of statements, so an imaginary consequent cannot follow from true premises in a connected sequence. But, an ...

See also:

Imaginary antecedent, Imaginary antecedent - Imaginary consequent, Imaginary antecedent - Fictional consequent, Imaginary antecedent - Real consequent, Imaginary antecedent - Self-reference, Imaginary antecedent - Undecidability, Imaginary antecedent - Further considerations

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Immutability does not imply that the object as stored in the computer's memory is unwriteable. Rather, immutability is a compile-time construct that indicates what a programmer should do, not necessarily what she can do (for instance, by circumventing the type system or violating const correctness in C or C++). A technique which blends the advantages of mutable and immutable objects, and is supported directly in almost all modern hardware, is copy-on-write (COW). Using this technique, when a user asks the system to copy ...

See also:

Immutable object, Immutable object - Background, Immutable object - Implementation, Immutable object - Example, Immutable object - Usage

Read more here: » Immutable object: Encyclopedia II - Immutable object - Implementation

In Object-Oriented Programming (OOP), an instance of a program (i.e. a program running in a computer) is treated as a dynamic set of interacting objects. Objects in OOP extend the more general notion of objects described above to include a very specific kind of typing, which among other things allows for: data members that represent the data associated with the object. methods that access the data members in predefined ways. In the case of most objects, one can access the data members only through the meth ...

See also:

Object computer science, Object computer science - Objects in Object-Oriented Programming

Read more here: » Object computer science: Encyclopedia II - Object computer science - Objects in Object-Oriented Programming

Perl - Example Program. In Perl, the canonical "Hello world" program is: #!/usr/bin/perl print "Hello, world!\n"; The first line is the shebang, which tells the operating system where to find the Perl interpreter. The second line prints the string Hello, world! and a newline (like a person pressing 'Return' or 'Enter'). The shebang is the usual way to invoke the interpreter on Unix systems. Windows systems may rely on the shebang, or they may associate a .plSee also:

Perl, Perl - Overview, Perl - Language features, Perl - Applications, Perl - Implementation, Perl - Availability, Perl - Language structure, Perl - Example Program, Perl - Data types, Perl - Control structures, Perl - Subroutines, Perl - Regular expressions, Perl - Database interfaces, Perl - Language design, Perl - Opinion, Perl - Pro, Perl - Con, Perl - History, Perl - Future, Perl - CPAN, Perl - Name, Perl - The Camel Symbol, Perl - Fun with Perl

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Some languages use the idea of l-value and r-value. L-values are values that have addresses, meaning they are variables or dereferenced references to a certain place. R-value is either l-value or non-l-value — a term only used to distinguish from l-value. In C, the term l-value originally meant something that could be assigned (coming from left-value, indicating it was on the left side of the = operator), but since 'const' w ...

See also:

Value computer science, Value computer science - In C: L-value and r-value, Value computer science - In assembly language

Read more here: » Value computer science: Encyclopedia II - Value computer science - In C: L-value and r-value

In a typical case, the process is as follows: calculate the size of an object - the size is mostly the same as that of the class but can vary. When the object in question is not derived from a class, but from a prototype instead, the size of an object is usually that of the internal data structure (a hash for instance) that holds its slots. allocation - allocating memory space with the size of an object plus the growth later, if possible to know in advance binding methods - this is usually either left to the cl ...

See also:

Object lifetime, Object lifetime - Creating objects, Object lifetime - Creation methods, Object lifetime - Destroying objects, Object lifetime - Examples, Object lifetime - C++, Object lifetime - Java, Object lifetime - Objective-C, Object lifetime - Python

Read more here: » Object lifetime: Encyclopedia II - Object lifetime - Creating objects