proton decay

In physical cosmology, the Big Bang is the scientific theory that the Universe emerged from an enormously dense and hot state about 13.7 billion years ago. The Big Bang is a consequence of the observed Hubble's law velocities of distant galaxies that when taken together with the cosmological principle imply that space is expanding according to the Friedmann-Lemaître model of general relativity. Extrapolated into the past, these observations show that the Universe has expanded from a primeval state, in which all the matter and energy ...

Including:

• Big Bang - History
• Big Bang - Overview
• Big Bang - Theoretical underpinnings
• Big Bang - Observational evidence
• Big Bang - Hubble's law expansion
• Big Bang - Cosmic microwave background radiation
• Big Bang - Abundance of primordial elements
• Big Bang - Galactic evolution and distribution
• Big Bang - Features issues and problems
• Big Bang - Horizon problem
• Big Bang - Flatness problem
• Big Bang - Magnetic monopoles
• Big Bang - Baryon asymmetry
• Big Bang - Globular cluster age
• Big Bang - Dark matter
• Big Bang - Dark energy
• Big Bang - The future according to the Big Bang theory
• Big Bang - Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang
• Big Bang - Philosophical and religious interpretations

Read more here: » Big Bang: Encyclopedia - Big Bang

To help compare orders of magnitude of different times, this page lists times longer than 1019 seconds (320,000 million years) See also times of other orders of magnitude. See the article about the ultimate fate of the Universe for more discussion of these issues. Shorter times 3.3 × 1012 years – According to the traditional Vedic time of Hinduism, this is the lifetime of Brahma. 7.7 × 1015 years – half-life of cadmium-113 1.4 × 1017 year ...

Read more here: » 1 E19 s and more: Encyclopedia - 1 E19 s and more

A number of problems have arisen within the Big Bang theory throughout its history. Some of them are mainly of historical interest today, and have been avoided either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations. Other issues, such as the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter, are not considered to be fatal as they can be addressed through refinements of the theory. There are a small number of proponents of non-standard cosmologies who doubt that there was a Big Bang at all. ...

See also:

Big Bang, Big Bang - History, Big Bang - Overview, Big Bang - Theoretical underpinnings, Big Bang - Observational evidence, Big Bang - Hubble's law expansion, Big Bang - Cosmic microwave background radiation, Big Bang - Abundance of primordial elements, Big Bang - Galactic evolution and distribution, Big Bang - Features issues and problems, Big Bang - Horizon problem, Big Bang - Flatness problem, Big Bang - Magnetic monopoles, Big Bang - Baryon asymmetry, Big Bang - Globular cluster age, Big Bang - Dark matter, Big Bang - Dark energy, Big Bang - The future according to the Big Bang theory, Big Bang - Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang, Big Bang - Philosophical and religious interpretations

Read more here: » Big Bang: Encyclopedia II - Big Bang - Features issues and problems

As complex representations: ...

See also:

Pati-Salam model, Pati-Salam model - Minimal supersymmetric Pati-Salam, Pati-Salam model - spacetime, Pati-Salam model - spatial symmetry, Pati-Salam model - gauge symmetry group, Pati-Salam model - global internal symmetry, Pati-Salam model - vector superfields, Pati-Salam model - chiral superfields, Pati-Salam model - superpotential, Pati-Salam model - left-right extension

Read more here: » Pati-Salam model: Encyclopedia II - Pati-Salam model - chiral superfields

Several such theories have been proposed, but none is currently universally accepted. An even more ambitious theory that includes all fundamental forces, including gravitation, is termed a theory of everything. Some common mainstream GUT models are: minimal left-right model -- SU(3)C×SU(2)L×SU(2)R×U(1)B-L Georgi-Glashow model -- SU(5) SO(10) Flipped SU(5) -- SU(5)×U(1) Pati-Salam model -- SU(4)×SU(2)×SU(2) flipped SO(10) -- SO(1 ...

See also:

Grand unification theory, Grand unification theory - Motivation, Grand unification theory - Ingredients, Grand unification theory - Proposed theories, Grand unification theory - Current status

Read more here: » Grand unification theory: Encyclopedia II - Grand unification theory - Proposed theories

The vacua correspond to the mutual zeros of the F and D terms. Let's first look at the case where the VEVs of all the chiral fields are zero except for Φ. Georgi-Glashow model - The Φ sector. W = Tr[aΦ2 + bΦ3] The F zeros corresponds to finding the stationary points of W subject to the traceless constraint Tr[Φ] = 0. So, where λ is a Lagrange multiplier. Up ...

See also:

Georgi-Glashow model, Georgi-Glashow model - Breaking SU5, Georgi-Glashow model - Matter parity, Georgi-Glashow model - Minimal supersymmetric SU5, Georgi-Glashow model - spacetime, Georgi-Glashow model - spatial symmetry, Georgi-Glashow model - gauge symmetry group, Georgi-Glashow model - global internal symmetry, Georgi-Glashow model - vector superfields, Georgi-Glashow model - chiral superfields, Georgi-Glashow model - superpotential, Georgi-Glashow model - Vacua, Georgi-Glashow model - The Φ sector, Georgi-Glashow model - decomposition, Georgi-Glashow model - Fermion masses

Read more here: » Georgi-Glashow model: Encyclopedia II - Georgi-Glashow model - Vacua

The Planck Epoch covers the time from 10-43 to 10-35 seconds after the Big Bang. The temperature during this epoch is estimated to decrease from 1032 K to 1027 K. 10-43 seconds A length of 10-43 seconds is known as Planck time. At this point, the force of gravity separated from the other three forces, collectively known as the electronuclear force. A complete theory of quantum gravity such as superstring theory is needed to understand these very earl ...

See also:

Timeline of the Big Bang, Timeline of the Big Bang - Introduction, Timeline of the Big Bang - Overview, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Big Bang and matter formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Primordial Age - from 0 years to 379000 years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Planck Epoch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Galaxy and star formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Stelliferous Age - from 10⁶ to 10¹⁴ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Near-term future of the Universe - three different scenarios, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario A: The Big Rip, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario B: The Heat death of the Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario C: The Big Crunch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Long-term future for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Degenerate Age - from 10¹⁴ to 10⁴⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Black Hole Age - from 10⁴⁰ years to 10¹⁰⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Ultimate fate for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Dark Age - from 10¹⁰⁰ years until 10¹⁵⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Photon Age - from 10¹⁵⁰ years until the Distant Future

Read more here: » Timeline of the Big Bang: Encyclopedia II - Timeline of the Big Bang - Planck Epoch

There is a general aesthetic among high energy physicists that the more symmetrical a theory is, the more "beautiful" and "elegant" it is. According to this aesthetic, the Standard Model gauge group, which is the direct product of three groups (modulo some finite group) is "ugly". Also, reasoning in analogy with the 19th-century unification of electricity with magnetism into electromagnetism, and especially the success of the electroweak theory, which utilizes the idea of spontaneous symmetry breaking to unify electromagnetism with the weak ...

See also:

Grand unification theory, Grand unification theory - Motivation, Grand unification theory - Ingredients, Grand unification theory - Proposed theories, Grand unification theory - Current status

Read more here: » Grand unification theory: Encyclopedia II - Grand unification theory - Motivation

Construction of Kamioka Underground Observatory, the predecessor of the present Kamioka Observatory, Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, University of Tokyo began in 1982 and was completed in April, 1983. The purpose of the observatory was to detect the proton decay, one of the most fundamental questions of elementary particle physics. The detector, named KAMIOKANDE for Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment, was a tank which contained 3,000 tons of pure water and had about 1,000 photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) attached to the inner surf ...

See also:

Super-Kamiokande, Super-Kamiokande - History

Read more here: » Super-Kamiokande: Encyclopedia II - Super-Kamiokande - History

In more recent years, a new class of theories has also suggested the presense of a magnetic monopole. In the early 1970s, the successes of quantum field theory and gauge theory in the development of electroweak and the strong nuclear force led many theorists to move on to attempt to combine them in a single theory known as a grand unified theory, or GUT. Several GUTs were proposed, most of which had the curious feature of suggesting the presense of a real magnetic monopole particle. More accurately, GUTs predicted a range of particles ...

See also:

Magnetic monopole, Magnetic monopole - Background, Magnetic monopole - Maxwell's Equations, Magnetic monopole - Dirac's quantization, Magnetic monopole - GUTs, Magnetic monopole - Attempts to find monopoles

Read more here: » Magnetic monopole: Encyclopedia II - Magnetic monopole - GUTs

The Standard Model contains both fermionic and bosonic fundamental particles. Fermions are particles which possess half-integer spin and obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no fermions can share the same quantum state. Bosons possess integer spin and do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Informally speaking, fermions are particles of matter and bosons are particles that transmit forces. For a detailed description of the differences between fermion ...

See also:

Standard Model, Standard Model - The Standard Model, Standard Model - Table, Standard Model - Tests and predictions, Standard Model - Challenges to the Standard Model

Read more here: » Standard Model: Encyclopedia II - Standard Model - The Standard Model

A number of problems have arisen within the Big Bang theory throughout its history. Some of them are mainly of historical interest today, and have been avoided either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations. Other issues, such as the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter, are not considered to be fatal as they can be addressed through refinements of the theory. There are a small number of proponents of non-standard cosmologies who doubt that there was a Big Bang at all. ...

See also:

Big Bang, Big Bang - History, Big Bang - Overview, Big Bang - Theoretical underpinnings, Big Bang - Observational evidence, Big Bang - Hubble's law expansion, Big Bang - Cosmic microwave background radiation, Big Bang - Abundance of primordial elements, Big Bang - Galactic evolution and distribution, Big Bang - Features, issues and problems, Big Bang - Horizon problem, Big Bang - Flatness problem, Big Bang - Magnetic monopoles, Big Bang - Baryon asymmetry, Big Bang - Globular cluster age, Big Bang - Dark matter, Big Bang - Dark energy, Big Bang - The future according to the Big Bang theory, Big Bang - Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang, Big Bang - Philosophical and religious interpretations

Read more here: » Big Bang: Encyclopedia II - Big Bang - Features, issues and problems

Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario A: The Big Rip. This scenario is possible only if dark energy increases over time as the Universe expands. It's highly speculative since dark energy is poorly understood and it's questionable if it varies over time to such a degree that it causes every atom in the Universe to tear apart from the inside out. The summary of the theory goes that given enough time, not only do galaxies race away from each other but eventually so do stars, then planets, and eventually atoms and als ...

See also:

Timeline of the Big Bang, Timeline of the Big Bang - Introduction, Timeline of the Big Bang - Overview, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Big Bang and matter formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Primordial Age - from 0 years to 379000 years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Planck Epoch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Galaxy and star formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Stelliferous Age - from 10⁶ to 10¹⁴ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Near-term future of the Universe - three different scenarios, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario A: The Big Rip, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario B: The Heat death of the Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario C: The Big Crunch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Long-term future for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Degenerate Age - from 10¹⁴ to 10⁴⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Black Hole Age - from 10⁴⁰ years to 10¹⁰⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Ultimate fate for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Dark Age - from 10¹⁰⁰ years until 10¹⁵⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Photon Age - from 10¹⁵⁰ years until the Distant Future

Read more here: » Timeline of the Big Bang: Encyclopedia II - Timeline of the Big Bang - Near-term future of the Universe - three different scenarios

Timeline of the Big Bang - The Stelliferous Age - from 106 to 1014 years. Hydrogen nuclei (protons) capture electrons, forming the first atoms. By now the Universe has created all the matter it will create and the resulting primordial hydrogen and helium are already clumping into primordial galaxies and quasars. Big Bang Era ends as we mov ...

See also:

Timeline of the Big Bang, Timeline of the Big Bang - Introduction, Timeline of the Big Bang - Overview, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Big Bang and matter formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Primordial Age - from 0 years to 379000 years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Planck Epoch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Galaxy and star formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Stelliferous Age - from 10⁶ to 10¹⁴ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Near-term future of the Universe - three different scenarios, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario A: The Big Rip, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario B: The Heat death of the Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario C: The Big Crunch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Long-term future for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Degenerate Age - from 10¹⁴ to 10⁴⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Black Hole Age - from 10⁴⁰ years to 10¹⁰⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Ultimate fate for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Dark Age - from 10¹⁰⁰ years until 10¹⁵⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Photon Age - from 10¹⁵⁰ years until the Distant Future

Read more here: » Timeline of the Big Bang: Encyclopedia II - Timeline of the Big Bang - Galaxy and star formation

The Standard Model predicted the existence of W and Z bosons, the gluon, the top quark and the charm quark before these particles had been observed. Their predicted properties were experimentally confirmed with good precision. The Large Electron-Positron collider at CERN tested various predictions about the decay of Z bosons, and found them confirmed. To get an idea of the success of the Standard Model a comparison between the measured and the predicted values of some qu ...

See also:

Standard Model, Standard Model - The Standard Model, Standard Model - Table, Standard Model - Tests and predictions, Standard Model - Challenges to the Standard Model

Read more here: » Standard Model: Encyclopedia II - Standard Model - Tests and predictions

Timeline of the Big Bang - The Degenerate Age - from 1014 to 1040 years. Stellar formation stops, leaving matter to decay over a very long period of time. The hydrogen fuel used for fusion by stars will be eventually depleted, leaving all matter in the Universe in a compact state populated by the following objects after all stars burn out: Planets and planetoids (this category includes asteroids, comets, brown dwarfs, etc.) brown dwarfs < ...

See also:

Timeline of the Big Bang, Timeline of the Big Bang - Introduction, Timeline of the Big Bang - Overview, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Big Bang and matter formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Primordial Age - from 0 years to 379000 years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Planck Epoch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Galaxy and star formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Stelliferous Age - from 10⁶ to 10¹⁴ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Near-term future of the Universe - three different scenarios, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario A: The Big Rip, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario B: The Heat death of the Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario C: The Big Crunch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Long-term future for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Degenerate Age - from 10¹⁴ to 10⁴⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Black Hole Age - from 10⁴⁰ years to 10¹⁰⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Ultimate fate for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Dark Age - from 10¹⁰⁰ years until 10¹⁵⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Photon Age - from 10¹⁵⁰ years until the Distant Future

Read more here: » Timeline of the Big Bang: Encyclopedia II - Timeline of the Big Bang - Long-term future for a long-lived Universe

Timeline of the Big Bang - The Dark Age - from 10100 years until 10150 years. The remaining black holes evaporate: first the small ones, and then the supermassive black holes. All matter that used to make up the stars and galaxies has now degenerated into photons. Timeline of the Big Bang - The Photon Age - from 10150 years until the Distant Future. The Universe now reaches extreme low-energy state. What happens after this is spe ...

See also:

Timeline of the Big Bang, Timeline of the Big Bang - Introduction, Timeline of the Big Bang - Overview, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Big Bang and matter formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Primordial Age - from 0 years to 379000 years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Planck Epoch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Galaxy and star formation, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Stelliferous Age - from 10⁶ to 10¹⁴ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Near-term future of the Universe - three different scenarios, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario A: The Big Rip, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario B: The Heat death of the Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - Scenario C: The Big Crunch, Timeline of the Big Bang - Long-term future for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Degenerate Age - from 10¹⁴ to 10⁴⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Black Hole Age - from 10⁴⁰ years to 10¹⁰⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - Ultimate fate for a long-lived Universe, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Dark Age - from 10¹⁰⁰ years until 10¹⁵⁰ years, Timeline of the Big Bang - The Photon Age - from 10¹⁵⁰ years until the Distant Future

Read more here: » Timeline of the Big Bang: Encyclopedia II - Timeline of the Big Bang - Ultimate fate for a long-lived Universe

A generic invariant renormalizable superpotential is a (complex) invariant cubic polynomial in the superfields. It is a linear combination of the following terms: The last two rows presupposes the multiplicity of Nc is not zero. Note that the superscript c, when placed after N is NOT a SU(5) index!!! The second column expands each term in index notation (neglecting the proper normalization coefficient). i and j are the generation indices. The coupling Hu 10i 10j has coefficients which are ...

See also:

Georgi-Glashow model, Georgi-Glashow model - Breaking SU5, Georgi-Glashow model - Matter parity, Georgi-Glashow model - Minimal supersymmetric SU5, Georgi-Glashow model - spacetime, Georgi-Glashow model - spatial symmetry, Georgi-Glashow model - gauge symmetry group, Georgi-Glashow model - global internal symmetry, Georgi-Glashow model - vector superfields, Georgi-Glashow model - chiral superfields, Georgi-Glashow model - superpotential, Georgi-Glashow model - Vacua, Georgi-Glashow model - The Φ sector, Georgi-Glashow model - decomposition, Georgi-Glashow model - Fermion masses

Read more here: » Georgi-Glashow model: Encyclopedia II - Georgi-Glashow model - superpotential

A number of attempts have been made to detect magnetic monopoles. One of the simplest is to use a loop of superconducting wire that can look for even tiny magnetic sources, a so-called "superconducting quantum interference detector", or SQUID. Given the predicted density, loops the size of a soup can would expect to see about one monopole event per year. Although there have been tantalizing events recorded, in particular the event recorded by Blas Cabrera on the night of February 14, 1982, there has never been reproducible evidence for the e ...

See also:

Magnetic monopole, Magnetic monopole - Background, Magnetic monopole - Maxwell's Equations, Magnetic monopole - Dirac's quantization, Magnetic monopole - GUTs, Magnetic monopole - Attempts to find monopoles

Read more here: » Magnetic monopole: Encyclopedia II - Magnetic monopole - Attempts to find monopoles

A generic invariant renormalizable superpotential is a (complex) and U(1)R invariant cubic polynomial in the superfields. It is a linear combination of the following terms: i and j are the generation indices. ...

See also:

Pati-Salam model, Pati-Salam model - Minimal supersymmetric Pati-Salam, Pati-Salam model - spacetime, Pati-Salam model - spatial symmetry, Pati-Salam model - gauge symmetry group, Pati-Salam model - global internal symmetry, Pati-Salam model - vector superfields, Pati-Salam model - chiral superfields, Pati-Salam model - superpotential, Pati-Salam model - left-right extension

Read more here: » Pati-Salam model: Encyclopedia II - Pati-Salam model - superpotential