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António Castanheira Neves (born November 8, 1929) is a Portuguese legal philosopher and a professor emeritus at the law faculty of the University of Coimbra. According to Castanheira Neves, law can only be understood through legal problems (roughly, legal cases), which have to be solved within the legal system (including a necessary connection to morality). Law, he claims, is not something given or previous, but the solution to legal problems. Legal problems are the decisive starting point. His opposition to positivism, ...

Including:

• António Castanheira Neves - Quote
• António Castanheira Neves - Major works

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Theurgy describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action of God (or other personified supernatural power), especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, or perfecting or improving oneself. Theurgy - Neoplatonism. The source of Western theurgy can be found in the philosophy of late Neoplatonists, especially Iamblichus. In late Neoplatonism, the universe is regarded as a series of emanations from the Godhead. Matter itself is me ...

Including:

• Theurgy - Neoplatonism
• Theurgy - Emperor Julian
• Theurgy - Kabbalah
• Theurgy - Christian theurgy
• Theurgy - External link

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The source of Western theurgy can be found in the philosophy of late Neoplatonists, especially Iamblichus. In late Neoplatonism, the universe is regarded as a series of emanations from the Godhead. Matter itself is merely the lowest of these emanations, and therefore not in essence different from the Divine. Although the number and qualities of these emanations differ, most Neoplatonists insisted that God was both singular and good. Although Neoplatonists were technically polytheists, they also embraced a form of monism: reality was varied, with varied gods, but they all ...

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Theurgy, Theurgy - Neoplatonism, Theurgy - Emperor Julian, Theurgy - Kabbalah, Theurgy - Christian theurgy, Theurgy - External link

Read more here: » Theurgy: Encyclopedia II - Theurgy - Neoplatonism

Doomsday argument - The doomsday argument is based on arbitrary hypotheses. Claiming that "we can say with 95% confidence that f = n/N is within the interval (0.05,1]" is true, but the deduction that "In other words we are 95% certain that we are within the last 95% of all the humans ever to be born" is questionable. We can say with 95% confidence that f = n/N is in any partition of (0,1] which contains 95% of the whole interval; for instance (0, 0.95], (0.01, 0.96], (0, 0.45] U (0.5, 1], etc. In other words, the ...

See also:

Doomsday argument, Doomsday argument - Numerical estimate of Doomsday, Doomsday argument - Remarks, Doomsday argument - Simplification: two possible total number of humans, Doomsday argument - What the argument is not, Doomsday argument - Variations, Doomsday argument - Gott's formulation: 'vague prior' total population, Doomsday argument - Reference classes, Doomsday argument - Sampling only WMD-era humans, Doomsday argument - SSSA: Sampling from observer-moments, Doomsday argument - Rebuttals, Doomsday argument - The doomsday argument is based on arbitrary hypotheses, Doomsday argument - We are in the earliest 5% a priori, Doomsday argument - Critique: Human extinction is distant a posteriori, Doomsday argument - The prior N distribution may make n very uninformative, Doomsday argument - Infinite Expectation, Doomsday argument - SIA: The possibility of not existing at all, Doomsday argument - Many worlds, Doomsday argument - Caves' rebuttal, Doomsday argument - Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal, Doomsday argument - Math-free explanation by analogy, Doomsday argument - Analogy to the estimated final score of a cricket batsman, Doomsday argument - Notes

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Scholars now agree that the word "decline" more accurately renders Spengler's intended meaning, as opposed to the original German word "Untergang." Spengler would explain that he did not mean to describe a catastrophic occurrence, but rather a protracted fall—a twilight or sunset. "Untergang" can be interpreted in both manners, and after the Second World War, most critics and scholars chose to read it in the cataclysmic sense. Spengler’s world-historical outlook is informed by two philosophers, Goethe and Nietzsche, the former mor ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

Read more here: » The Decline of the West: Encyclopedia II - The Decline of the West - Overview

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Spengler distinguishes between ahistorical peoples and peoples caught up in world-history. While he recognizes that all people are a part of history, he argues that only certain cultures imbue a wider sense of historical involvement. Thus some people see themselves as part of a grand historical design or tradition, while others view themselves in a self-contained manner. For the latter, there is no world-historical consciousness. For Spengler, a world-historical view points toward the meaning of history itself, by breaking the histori ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

Read more here: » The Decline of the West: Encyclopedia II - The Decline of the West - The meaning of History

Spengler created a worldview that resonated with the post WW-1 German culture. His grim view of an inexorable doom for western civilization implied acceptance of fate, but also offered a sense of freedom from the past. His historical idea influenced artists and architects, who used it as a justification for abandoning the historic styles, now no longer valid for the new era. Mies van der Rohe is known to have accepted Spengler's view, and used it as a framework to guide his search for a new archit ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

Read more here: » The Decline of the West: Encyclopedia II - The Decline of the West - Impact

In a footnote, Spengler describes the essential core of his philosophical approach toward history, culture, and civilization: "Plato and Goethe stand for the philosophy of Becoming, Aristotle and Kant the philosophy of Being. [This saying of Goethe] must be regarded as the expression of a perfectly definite metaphysical doctrine. I would not have a single word changed of this: “The Godhead is effective in the living and not in the dead, in the becoming and the changing, not in the become and the set-fast; and therefore, simila ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

Read more here: » The Decline of the West: Encyclopedia II - The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization

Spengler attempts to tie race and Culture together, echoing ideas similar to those of Friedrich Ratzel and Rudolf Kjellén. These ideas, which were prevalent throughout German culture at the time, were likely the most significant elements for the National Socialists who would later claim Spengler as an intellectual forebear (despite Spengler's disdain for the Nazis—see: Spengler's The Hour of Decision). Spengler also discusses the national unity of a Culture, a concept to be differentiated from a nation's population. Historic ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

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Spengler asserts that democracy is simply the political weapon of money, and the media is the means through which money operates a democratic political system. The thorough penetration of money's power throughout a society is yet another marker of the shift from Culture to Civilization. Democracy and plutocracy are equivalent in Spengler's argument. The "tragic comedy of the world-improvers and freedom-teachers" is that they are simply assisting money to be more effective. The principles of equality, natural rights, universal suffrage ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

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Spengler’s view of the state is typical for a pre-WWI German conservative. He is anti-liberal, anti-democratic, and pro-authoritarian. He sees a leader’s responsibility as only to a minority that possesses the proper breeding for statesmanship, and which represents the rest of the nation in its historical struggle. Most states, he argues, have only a single social stratum which, constitutionally or otherwise, provides the political leading. That class represents the world-historical drive of a State, and within that stratum a ski ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

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Spengler is neither wholly pro-religion nor anti-religion, but he does differentiate between manifestations of religion that appear within a civilization’s developmental cycle. He sees each culture as having an initial religious identity, which eventually results in a reformation-like period, followed by a period of rationalism, and finally entering a period of second religiousness that correlates with decline. Intellectual creativeness of a Culture's Late period begins after th ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

Read more here: » The Decline of the West: Encyclopedia II - The Decline of the West - Religion's role

Spengler borrows frequently from mathematical philosophy. He holds that the mathematics and art of a civilization reveal its world-view. He notes that in Greek classical mathematics that there are only integers and no real concepts of limits or infinity. Therefore, without a concept of the infinite, all events of the distant past were viewed as equally distant, thus Alexander the Great had no problem declaring himself a descendant of a god. On the other hand, the western world—which has concepts of the zero, the infinite, and the limit—has a historical world-view which places a ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

Read more here: » The Decline of the West: Encyclopedia II - The Decline of the West - Mathematics

The concept of pseudomorphosis is one that Spengler introduces as a way of explaining what are in his eyes half-developed or only partially manifested Cultures. Specifically pseudomorphosis entails an older alien Culture so deeply ingrained in a land that a young Culture can not achieve a pure expression of itself. This leads to the young soul being cast in the old moulds, in Spengler's words. Young feelings then stiffen in senile practices, and instead of expanding ...

See also:

The Decline of the West, The Decline of the West - Background, The Decline of the West - Impact, The Decline of the West - Overview, The Decline of the West - Spengler's Cultures, The Decline of the West - Phases of rise and decline, The Decline of the West - The meaning of History, The Decline of the West - Culture and Civilization, The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis, The Decline of the West - Race and Culture, The Decline of the West - Religion's role, The Decline of the West - The State and Caesarism, The Decline of the West - Democracy media and money, The Decline of the West - Mathematics, The Decline of the West - Criticisms

Read more here: » The Decline of the West: Encyclopedia II - The Decline of the West - Pseudomorphosis

This argument has generated a lively philosophical debate, and no consensus has yet emerged on its solution. The variants described below produce the DA by separate derivations. Doomsday argument - Gott's formulation: 'vague prior' total population. Gott specifically proposes the functional form for the prior distribution of the number of people who will ever be born (N). Gott's DA used th ...

See also:

Doomsday argument, Doomsday argument - Numerical estimate of Doomsday, Doomsday argument - Remarks, Doomsday argument - Simplification: two possible total number of humans, Doomsday argument - What the argument is not, Doomsday argument - Variations, Doomsday argument - Gott's formulation: 'vague prior' total population, Doomsday argument - Reference classes, Doomsday argument - Sampling only WMD-era humans, Doomsday argument - SSSA: Sampling from observer-moments, Doomsday argument - Rebuttals, Doomsday argument - The doomsday argument is based on arbitrary hypotheses, Doomsday argument - We are in the earliest 5% a priori, Doomsday argument - Critique: Human extinction is distant a posteriori, Doomsday argument - The prior N distribution may make n very uninformative, Doomsday argument - Infinite Expectation, Doomsday argument - SIA: The possibility of not existing at all, Doomsday argument - Many worlds, Doomsday argument - Caves' rebuttal, Doomsday argument - Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal, Doomsday argument - Math-free explanation by analogy, Doomsday argument - Analogy to the estimated final score of a cricket batsman, Doomsday argument - Notes

Read more here: » Doomsday argument: Encyclopedia II - Doomsday argument - Variations

^  The two-case section is partially based on a refutation of the Doomsday Argument by Korb and Oliver. 1 The observer-moments DA formulation would still apply if humans developed unlimited lifespan. John Eastmond's 2002 critique ([3]) concludes that "an infinite conscious lifetime is not possible, even in principle" because, he contends, that the DA's uniform prior probability distribution applied over a countable infinity of observer-moments implies an uncountable number of the countably infinite ...

See also:

Doomsday argument, Doomsday argument - Numerical estimate of Doomsday, Doomsday argument - Remarks, Doomsday argument - Simplification: two possible total number of humans, Doomsday argument - What the argument is not, Doomsday argument - Variations, Doomsday argument - Gott's formulation: 'vague prior' total population, Doomsday argument - Reference classes, Doomsday argument - Sampling only WMD-era humans, Doomsday argument - SSSA: Sampling from observer-moments, Doomsday argument - Rebuttals, Doomsday argument - The doomsday argument is based on arbitrary hypotheses, Doomsday argument - We are in the earliest 5% a priori, Doomsday argument - Critique: Human extinction is distant a posteriori, Doomsday argument - The prior N distribution may make n very uninformative, Doomsday argument - Infinite Expectation, Doomsday argument - SIA: The possibility of not existing at all, Doomsday argument - Many worlds, Doomsday argument - Caves' rebuttal, Doomsday argument - Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal, Doomsday argument - Math-free explanation by analogy, Doomsday argument - Analogy to the estimated final score of a cricket batsman, Doomsday argument - Notes

Read more here: » Doomsday argument: Encyclopedia II - Doomsday argument - Notes

The Emperor Julian the Apostate (332-363), embraced Neoplatonic philosophy and worked to replace Christianity with his own version of Neoplatonic paganism. Due to his short reign and the strength of mainstream Christianity at the time, this was ultimately unsuccessful, but he did produce several works of philosophy and theology, including a hymn to the sun. In his theology, Helios, the Sun, was the perfect example of God's perfection and light, a symbol of divine emanation. He also held the mother goddess Cybele in high esteem. Julian favored ritual theurgy, with an emphasis on sacrifice and prayer. He was heav ...

See also:

Theurgy, Theurgy - Neoplatonism, Theurgy - Emperor Julian, Theurgy - Kabbalah, Theurgy - Christian theurgy, Theurgy - External link

Read more here: » Theurgy: Encyclopedia II - Theurgy - Emperor Julian