The "Christmas truce" began on Christmas Eve, December 24, 1914, during World War I, when German troops began decorating the area around their trenches in the region of Ypres, Belgium, for Christmas. They began by placing candles on trees, then continued the celebration by singing Christmas carols, namely Stille Nacht (Silent Night). The British troops in the trenches across from them responded by singing English carols. The two sides continued by shouting Christmas greetings to each other. Soon thereafter, there ...

Including:

• Christmas truce - Legacy

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A papal election is the method by which the Roman Catholic Church fills the office of Bishop of Rome, whose incumbent is known as the Pope, the head of the Church. The electors form a conclave, from the Latin phrase cum clave ("with a key"), referring to the "locking away" of the electors during the process. Conclaves have been employed since the Second Council of Lyons decreed in 1274 that the electors should meet in seclusion. They are now hel ...

Including:

• Papal conclave - Historical development
• Papal conclave - Electorate
• Papal conclave - Choice of the electors
• Papal conclave - Secular influence
• Papal conclave - Conclaves
• Papal conclave - Modern practice
• Papal conclave - Death of the Pope
• Papal conclave - Beginning of the election
• Papal conclave - Voting
• Papal conclave - Acceptance and proclamation
• Papal conclave - Historical voting patterns
• Papal conclave - Notes

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The Anglo-Irish War (also known as the Irish War of Independence) was a guerrilla campaign mounted against the British government in Ireland by the Irish Republican Army under the proclaimed legitimacy of the First Dáil, the extra-legal Irish parliament created in 1918 by a majority of Irish MPs. It lasted from January 1919 until the truce in July 1921. The Irish Republican Army which fought in this conflict is often referred to as the Old IRA to distinguish it from later organisations that used the same name.

• Anglo-Irish War - Origins
• Anglo-Irish War - Violence Spreads
• Anglo-Irish War - Michael Collins and the IRA
• Anglo-Irish War - British Response
• Anglo-Irish War - The Propaganda War
• Anglo-Irish War - The Truce — an uneasy peace
• Anglo-Irish War - The Treaty
• Anglo-Irish War - Additional reading

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Pope Benedict XVI (Latin: Benedictus PP. XVI; Italian: Benedetto XVI; German: Benedikt XVI; Spanish: Benedicto XVI; French: Benoît XVI), born Joseph Alois Ratzinger (April 16, 1927 in Marktl am Inn, Bavaria, Germany), is the 265th and reigning pope, the head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of Vatican City State. He was elected on April 19, 2005, in a papal conclave over which he presided in his capacity as dean of the College of Cardinals. He celebrated his Papal Inauguration Mass on April 24, 2005, and took possession of his cath ...

Including:

• Pope Benedict XVI - Overview
• Pope Benedict XVI - Early life 1927–1951
• Pope Benedict XVI - Background and childhood 1927–1943
• Pope Benedict XVI - Military service 1943–1945
• Pope Benedict XVI - Education 1946–1951
• Pope Benedict XVI - Early church career 1951–1981
• Pope Benedict XVI - Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 1981–2005
• Pope Benedict XVI - Health
• Pope Benedict XVI - Response to sex abuse scandal
• Pope Benedict XVI - Dialogue with non Christian religions
• Pope Benedict XVI - Ratzinger and Fatima
• Pope Benedict XVI - Papacy
• Pope Benedict XVI - Election to the Papacy
• Pope Benedict XVI - Choice of name
• Pope Benedict XVI - Early days of Papacy
• Pope Benedict XVI - Teachings
• Pope Benedict XVI - Curial appointments
• Pope Benedict XVI - Beatifications
• Pope Benedict XVI - Canonizations
• Pope Benedict XVI - Revival of traditional papal clothing
• Pope Benedict XVI - Apostolic journeys
• Pope Benedict XVI - Encyclicals
• Pope Benedict XVI - Pastoral Activities
• Pope Benedict XVI - Notes
• Pope Benedict XVI - Encyclicals
• Pope Benedict XVI - Books and theological writings
• Pope Benedict XVI - Literature
• Pope Benedict XVI - Biographies

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Pope John XXIII (Latin: Ioannes PP. XXIII), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (November 25, 1881 – June 3, 1963), reigned as the 261st Pope of the Catholic Church and sovereign of Vatican City from October 28, 1958 until his death in 1963. Pope John XXIII - Earlier life. Angelo Roncalli was born in a hospital (Province of Bergamo), Italy, on November 25, 1881. The fourth in a family of 13, his family worked as sharecroppers, a striking contrast to his predecessor, Eugenio Pacelli, who came from ...

Including:

• Pope John XXIII - Earlier life
• Pope John XXIII - Papacy
• Pope John XXIII - Legacy
• Pope John XXIII - Modern conspiracy theories
• Pope John XXIII - Footnotes

Read more here: » Pope John XXIII: Encyclopedia - Pope John XXIII

The Congregation for Catholic Education (in Seminaries and Institutes of Study) [Congregationis de Institutione Catholica quo ordo studiorum in Facultatibus Iuris Canonici innovatur] is the congregation of the Roman Curia responsible for: (1) seminaries (except those regulated by the Congregations for the Evangelization of Peoples and for the Oriental Churches) and houses of formation of religious and secular institutes; (2) universities, faculties, institutes and higher schools of study, either ecclesial or civil dependent on ecclesial persons; and (3) s ...

Including:

• Congregation for Catholic Education - Prefects

Read more here: » Congregation for Catholic Education: Encyclopedia - Congregation for Catholic Education

The Papal Coronation was a six-hour ceremony in which a new pope was crowned as head of the Roman Catholic Church and sovereign of Vatican City (and before 1870, head of state of the Papal States). A three-tiered Triple Tiara or Papal Tiara was used in the ceremony, and the new pope would take the papal oath. Papal Coronation - Location of the ceremony. The first papal coronations took place in St. John Lateran, the pope's cathedral. However traditionally for hundreds of years papal coronations have ...

Including:

• Papal Coronation - Location of the ceremony
• Papal Coronation - Pope Paul and the coronation
• Papal Coronation - John Paul II and the coronation
• Papal Coronation - Conservative criticism of Benedict XVI's decision not to be crowned
• Papal Coronation - Footnotes

Read more here: » Papal Coronation: Encyclopedia - Papal Coronation

Benedict commonly refers to: Saint Benedict of Nursia/Italy (fl. 6th century), founder of the Benedictine Order. Pope Benedict XVI, the current Pope Other well-known persons by this name include: Earlier popes: Pope Benedict I Pope Benedict II (see below) Pope Benedict III Pope Benedict IV Pope Benedict V Pope Benedict VI Pope Benedict VII Pope Benedict VIII Pope Benedict IX Pope Benedict X (actually ...

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The "Black and Tans" were set up to bolster the flagging RIC. 7,000 strong, they were mainly ex-British soldiers demobilised after World War I. Most came from English and Scottish cities. While officially they were part of the RIC, in reality they were a paramilitary organisation who left a reputation of murder, terror, drunkenness and ill-discipline that did more harm to the British government's moral authority in Ireland than any other group. Later came the Auxiliaries, 1,400 former British army officers. While easily matching the violence ...

See also:

Anglo-Irish War, Anglo-Irish War - Origins, Anglo-Irish War - Violence Spreads, Anglo-Irish War - Michael Collins and the IRA, Anglo-Irish War - British Response, Anglo-Irish War - The Propaganda War, Anglo-Irish War - The Truce — an uneasy peace, Anglo-Irish War - The Treaty, Anglo-Irish War - Additional reading, Anglo-Irish War - Footnote

Read more here: » Anglo-Irish War: Encyclopedia II - Anglo-Irish War - British Response

Pope Benedict XVI - Election to the Papacy. On January 2, 2005, Time magazine quoted unnamed Vatican sources as saying that Ratzinger was a frontrunner to succeed John Paul II should the pope die or become too ill to continue as pope. On the death of John Paul II, the Financial Times gave the odds of Ratzinger becoming pope as 7–1, the lead position, but close to his rivals on the liberal wing of the church. In April 2005, before his election as pope, he was identified as one of the 100 mo ...

See also:

Pope Benedict XVI, Pope Benedict XVI - Overview, Pope Benedict XVI - Early life 1927–1951, Pope Benedict XVI - Background and childhood 1927–1943, Pope Benedict XVI - Military service 1943–1945, Pope Benedict XVI - Education 1946–1951, Pope Benedict XVI - Early church career 1951–1981, Pope Benedict XVI - Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 1981–2005, Pope Benedict XVI - Health, Pope Benedict XVI - Response to sex abuse scandal, Pope Benedict XVI - Dialogue with non Christian religions, Pope Benedict XVI - Ratzinger and Fatima, Pope Benedict XVI - Papacy, Pope Benedict XVI - Election to the Papacy, Pope Benedict XVI - Choice of name, Pope Benedict XVI - Early days of Papacy, Pope Benedict XVI - Teachings, Pope Benedict XVI - Curial appointments, Pope Benedict XVI - Beatifications, Pope Benedict XVI - Canonizations, Pope Benedict XVI - Revival of traditional papal clothing, Pope Benedict XVI - Apostolic journeys, Pope Benedict XVI - Encyclicals, Pope Benedict XVI - Pastoral Activities, Pope Benedict XVI - Notes, Pope Benedict XVI - Encyclicals, Pope Benedict XVI - Books and theological writings, Pope Benedict XVI - Literature, Pope Benedict XVI - Biographies

Read more here: » Pope Benedict XVI: Encyclopedia II - Pope Benedict XVI - Papacy

Unlike most monarchies, the papacy did not have one special crown that was used by all popes. In part that was due to the series of destructions of old tiaras that has occurred when at various times Rome had been invaded and papal property, including tiaras, stolen. In part, during the 19th century it was due both to the growing wealth of some Catholic sees, which enabled them to donate expensive new crowns to the papacy when their cardinal was elected pope, an ...

See also:

Decoration of the Papal Tiara, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - Multiple tiaras, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - Decoration, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - Value of the tiaras, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - 1834 Tiara, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - 1855 Spanish Tiara, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - 1871 Belgian Tiara, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - The 1877 Palatine Tiara, Decoration of the Papal Tiara - Jewels on other tiaras

Read more here: » Decoration of the Papal Tiara: Encyclopedia II - Decoration of the Papal Tiara - Multiple tiaras

Cornwell maintains that, although Pacelli was an individual of selfless habit, he was also a believer in the principle of absolute leadership, and promoted the concept of absolute papal rule. Nevertheless, Pacelli reflected the prevailing mood in the Vatican that was suspicious of democracy and parliamentary government, and felt that business could often best be done with totalitarian regimes. Pacelli's own brother, Francesco, helped to draft the 1929 Lateran Accord between the Vati ...

See also:

Hitler's Pope, Hitler's Pope - Cornwell's Work, Hitler's Pope - Birth and early church career, Hitler's Pope - Critical Analysis of Cornwell's Work, Hitler's Pope - Additional reading, Hitler's Pope - Related Subjects

Read more here: » Hitler's Pope: Encyclopedia II - Hitler's Pope - Birth and early church career

St. Thérèse de Lisieux was born in Alençon, France, the daughter of Louis Martin, a watchmaker, and Zélie-Marie Guérin, a lacemaker. Both her parents were very religious. Louis had attempted to become a monk, but a lack of knowledge of Latin hindered him. Zélie-Marie had tried to become a nun, but was told she didn't have the vocation. Instead, she vowed that if she married, she would give all her children to the church. Louis and Zélie-Marie met in 1858 and married only three months later. They had nine children, of whom only five da ...

See also:

Thérèse de Lisieux, Thérèse de Lisieux - Early life, Thérèse de Lisieux - The Little Way, Thérèse de Lisieux - Declining health and death, Thérèse de Lisieux - L'histoire d'une âme, Thérèse de Lisieux - Recognition, Thérèse de Lisieux - Quotations, Thérèse de Lisieux - External link

Read more here: » Thérèse de Lisieux: Encyclopedia II - Thérèse de Lisieux - Early life

1920 - January. January 7 - Forces of Russian White admiral Kolchak surrender in Krasnoyarsk. January 9 - Britain announces it will build 1,000,000 homes for war veterans. The promise will never be fulfilled in full. January 9 - Thousands of onlookers watch as "The Human Fly" George Polley, climbs the New York Woolworth Building. He has reached the 30th floor when a policeman arrests him for climbing without a permit January 10 - League of Nations holds ...

See also:

1920, 1920 - Events, 1920 - January, 1920 - February, 1920 - March, 1920 - April-May, 1920 - June-July, 1920 - August-September, 1920 - October-November, 1920 - December, 1920 - Undated, 1920 - Births, 1920 - January, 1920 - February-March, 1920 - April, 1920 - May, 1920 - June-July, 1920 - August-December, 1920 - Date unknown, 1920 - Deaths, 1920 - Nobel Prizes

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A fringe of conservative Catholics—those who disagree with Vatican II—have derided Pope John's influence in calling the council, seeing in him the beginnings of a movement away from the "true faith". According to one theory, Pope John was actually an antipope, and the real pope was Giuseppe Cardinal Siri, elected in the 1958 conclave when what may have been white smoke was first seen. The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) allegedly claimed that Siri had indeed been elected on the third ballot of the 1958 p ...

See also:

Pope John XXIII, Pope John XXIII - Earlier life, Pope John XXIII - Papacy, Pope John XXIII - Legacy, Pope John XXIII - Modern conspiracy theories, Pope John XXIII - Footnotes

Read more here: » Pope John XXIII: Encyclopedia II - Pope John XXIII - Modern conspiracy theories

Joan of Arc - Early life. Joan of Arc was born in the village of Domrémy in the province of Loraine.[3] Her parents Jacques D'Arc and Isabelle Romee owned a modest farm. The region was part of the duchy of Burgundy during that era. Joan's own village and a few nearby communities formed an isolated patch of territory ...

See also:

Joan of Arc, Joan of Arc - Historical background, Joan of Arc - Biography, Joan of Arc - Early life, Joan of Arc - Career, Joan of Arc - Capture trial and execution, Joan of Arc - Retrial, Joan of Arc - Clothing, Joan of Arc - Visions, Joan of Arc - Legacy, Joan of Arc - Notes

Read more here: » Joan of Arc: Encyclopedia II - Joan of Arc - Biography

January 7 - Dáil Éireann, the extra-legal parliament of the Irish Republic, ratifies the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64-57 votes. January 8 - The Social Democratic Youth League of Norway is founded. January 10 - Arthur Griffith is elected President of Dáil Éireann. January 11 - First successful insulin treatment of diabetes. January 12 - British government releases remaining Irish prisoners captured in the War of Independence. January 13 - Flu epidemic has claimed 8 ...

See also:

1922, 1922 - Events, 1922 - Exact month/day of event unknown, 1922 - Births, 1922 - January-March, 1922 - April-June, 1922 - July to December, 1922 - Deaths, 1922 - Marriages, 1922 - January-March, 1922 - April-June, 1922 - July to December, 1922 - Nobel Prizes, 1922 - Heads of state in 1922

Read more here: » 1922: Encyclopedia II - 1922 - Events

With Europe facing World War I whoever was selected would face the difficulty of leading the Holy See through the war to end all wars, in which Catholic Belgium and France were attacked by Protestant Germany, which was supported by Catholic Austria while the Protestant United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (including Catholic Ireland) and Russian Orthodox Russia sided with France. Critics wondered whether the Holy See should remain neutral or whether it should assume a position of moral leadership by casting pub ...

See also:

Papal conclave 1914, Papal conclave 1914 - Political context, Papal conclave 1914 - Veto abolished, Papal conclave 1914 - New pope, Papal conclave 1914 - Conclave factfile

Read more here: » Papal conclave 1914: Encyclopedia II - Papal conclave 1914 - Political context

The first papal coronations took place in St. John Lateran, the pope's cathedral. However traditionally for hundreds of years papal coronations have taken place in the environs of St. Peter's Basilica, though a number of coronations took place in Avignon during the Avignon papacy. In 1800 Pope Pius VII was crowned in the crowded church of the Benedictine island monastery of San Giorgio, after his late predecessor had been forced into ...

See also:

Papal Coronation, Papal Coronation - Location of the ceremony, Papal Coronation - Pope Paul and the coronation, Papal Coronation - John Paul II and the coronation, Papal Coronation - Conservative criticism of Benedict XVI's decision not to be crowned, Papal Coronation - Footnotes

Read more here: » Papal Coronation: Encyclopedia II - Papal Coronation - Location of the ceremony

Melanie Calvat became a controversial figure. She was found to be wilful by the next bishop of Grenoble who suffered successive embarassments in seeking to provide for her. That was aggravated by her credulity in listening to conspiracy theorists and similar people, such as the Royalists or Monarchists of the Bourbon faction in contemporary France (Second Republic). Another influence was occultists and Protestants, from whom she adopted Luther's "Rome has lost the faith a ...

See also:

La Salette, La Salette - Controversy, La Salette - Official position of the Church

Read more here: » La Salette: Encyclopedia II - La Salette - Controversy

The procedures relating to the election of the Pope have undergone almost two millennia of development. Procedures similar to the present system were introduced in 1274 with the Second Council of Lyons. Papal conclave - Electorate. The earliest bishops were most likely chosen by the founders of their communities. Later, however, this method was replaced in Rome and elsewhere with that of election by the clergy and laity of the community and the bishops of neighbouring dioceses. The true electoral body was ...

See also:

Papal conclave, Papal conclave - Historical development, Papal conclave - Electorate, Papal conclave - Choice of the electors, Papal conclave - Secular influence, Papal conclave - Conclaves, Papal conclave - Modern practice, Papal conclave - Death of the Pope, Papal conclave - Beginning of the election, Papal conclave - Voting, Papal conclave - Acceptance and proclamation, Papal conclave - Historical voting patterns, Papal conclave - Notes

Read more here: » Papal conclave: Encyclopedia II - Papal conclave - Historical development