polymath

Cryptanalysis has coevolved together with cryptography, and the contest can be traced through the history of cryptography — new ciphers being designed to replace old broken designs, and new cryptanalytic techniques invented to crack the improved schemes. In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the same coin: in order to create secure cryptography, you have to design against possible cryptanalysis. Cryptanalysis - Classical cryptanalysis. Although the actual word "cryptanalysis" is relatively ...

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Cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - History of cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - Classical cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - Modern cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - The results of cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - Characterising attacks, Cryptanalysis - Prior knowledge: scenarios for cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - Classifying success in cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - Complexity, Cryptanalysis - Cryptanalysis of asymmetric cryptography, Cryptanalysis - Quantum computing applications for cryptanalysis, Cryptanalysis - Methods of cryptanalysis

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The academy replaced the first scientific community ever, the Academia Secretorum Naturae, that was closed due to Inquisition. It was founded in 1603 by Federico Cesi (1586-1630), an aristocrat from Umbria (the son of Duke of Acquasparta and a member of an important family from Rome) who was passionately interested in natural history, above all in botany. When Cesi visited Naples, he met the polymath Giambattista della Porta, and founded a branch of Porta's academy in that city together with three of his friends, the Dutch physician J ...

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Accademia dei Lincei, Accademia dei Lincei - L'Accademia, Accademia dei Lincei - Le tre Rinascite dei Lincei, Accademia dei Lincei - La Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Accademia dei Lincei - I Lincei e l' Accademia d'Italia, Accademia dei Lincei - L'Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei

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Many theories have been advanced as to the nature of the Voynich manuscript "language". Here is a partial list: Voynich manuscript - Letter-based cipher. According to this theory, the Voynich manuscript contains a meaningful text in some European language, that was intentionally rendered obscure by mapping it to the Voynich manuscript "alphabet" through a ciphe ...

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Voynich manuscript, Voynich manuscript - Description, Voynich manuscript - Illustrations, Voynich manuscript - The text, Voynich manuscript - History, Voynich manuscript - Theories about authorship, Voynich manuscript - Roger Bacon, Voynich manuscript - John Dee, Voynich manuscript - Edward Kelley, Voynich manuscript - Wilfrid Voynich, Voynich manuscript - Jacobus Sinapius, Voynich manuscript - Jan Marci, Voynich manuscript - Raphael Mnishovsky, Voynich manuscript - Anthony Ascham, Voynich manuscript - Theories about contents and purpose, Voynich manuscript - Herbal, Voynich manuscript - Sunflowers, Voynich manuscript - Alchemy, Voynich manuscript - Alchemical herbal, Voynich manuscript - Astrological herbal, Voynich manuscript - Microscopes and telescopes, Voynich manuscript - Multiple authors, Voynich manuscript - Theories about the language, Voynich manuscript - Letter-based cipher, Voynich manuscript - Codebook cipher, Voynich manuscript - Visual cipher, Voynich manuscript - Micrography, Voynich manuscript - Steganography, Voynich manuscript - Exotic natural language, Voynich manuscript - Polyglot tongue, Voynich manuscript - Constructed language, Voynich manuscript - Hoax, Voynich manuscript - Influence on popular culture

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The origin of Denmark is lost in prehistory. The oldest Danevirke is from the 7th century, at the same time as the new Runic alphabet. Oldest city: Ribe is from about 810. Up into the 10th century the Danes were known as Vikings, together with Norwegians and Swedes, colonising, raiding and trading in all parts of Europe. Viking explorers first discovered Iceland by accident in the ninth century, en route to the Faroe Islands. Erik the Red, or Erik Thorvaldson, was exiled from the colony for manslaughter in 980, and set sail for the we ...

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Denmark, Denmark - History, Denmark - Politics and government, Denmark - Counties, Denmark - Geography, Denmark - Economy, Denmark - Demographics, Denmark - Culture, Denmark - Miscellaneous topics

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It has often been noted that geniuses are accused of a lack of common sense. Stories of a genius in a given field being incapable of grasping so-called "everyday" concepts are abundant. Einstein reportedly sawed the rudder off his sailboat while at sea. One must remember that a genius is often driven to focus intensely on a given subject. Such focus might present itself as being obsessive/compulsive in nature, but it might also simply have been a choice made by the individual. If one is engaged in groundbreaking work in one's field, maintain ...

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Genius, Genius - Etymology, Genius - Gifted, Genius - Limitations, Genius - In philosophy, Genius - Pluralization

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Poetry dominates Tagore's literary reputation, but he also wrote novels, essays, short stories, travelogues, and drama. He also wrote numerous songs and composed all of them himself. Rabindranath Tagore - Short stories. Of Tagore's prose, perhaps most highly regarded are his short stories. He is credited with developing Bangla short story writing. His short stories are written in a prose that is rhythmic, often to the point of being poetic. However, his stories mostly borrow from deceptively simpl ...

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Rabindranath Tagore, Rabindranath Tagore - Biography, Rabindranath Tagore - Early life, Rabindranath Tagore - Life at Shelaidaha, Rabindranath Tagore - Life at Santiniketan, Rabindranath Tagore - Literature, Rabindranath Tagore - Short stories, Rabindranath Tagore - Drama, Rabindranath Tagore - Poetry, Rabindranath Tagore - Music, Rabindranath Tagore - Novels, Rabindranath Tagore - Partial bibliography, Rabindranath Tagore - Notes

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Ampère was born in Lyon, near his father's country house in Poleymieux and, as a child prodigy, took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge from his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out long arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit crumbs before he knew the figures. His father began to teach him Latin, but ceased on discovering the boy's greater inclination and aptitude for mathematical studies. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, to ena ...

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André-Marie Ampère, André-Marie Ampère - Early days, André-Marie Ampère - Contributions to physics and further studies, André-Marie Ampère - Legacy and final days

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Francis Galton - Early life. He was born near Sparkbrook, Birmingham and was Charles Darwin's half-cousin, sharing the common grandparent Erasmus Darwin. His father was Samuel Tertius Galton, son of Samuel "John" Galton. The Galtons were famous and highly successful Quaker gun-manufacturers and bankers, while the Darwins were distinguished in medicine and science. Both families boasted Fellows of the Royal Society and members who loved to invent in their spare time. Both Erasmus Darwin and Samuel Galton we ...

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Francis Galton, Francis Galton - Biography, Francis Galton - Early life, Francis Galton - Middle years, Francis Galton - Heredity historiometry and eugenics, Francis Galton - Statistics regression and correlation, Francis Galton - Fingerprints, Francis Galton - Final years, Francis Galton - Honors and impact

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It is not sufficiently recognized that Peirce’s career was that of a scientist, not a philosopher; and that during his lifetime he was known and valued chiefly as a scientist, only secondly as a logician, and scarcely at all as a philosopher. Even his work in philosophy and logic will not be understood until this fact becomes a standing premise of Peircian studies. (Max Fisch, in Moore and Robin 1964: 486). Upon this first, and in one sense sole, rule of reason, that in order to learn you must desire to learn, and in so desiring not ...

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Charles Peirce, Charles Peirce - Life, Charles Peirce - Reception, Charles Peirce - Works, Charles Peirce - Peirce's philosophy, Charles Peirce - Pragmatism, Charles Peirce - Scholastic realism, Charles Peirce - Formal perspective, Charles Peirce - Dynamics of representation, Charles Peirce - Normative sciences, Charles Peirce - Parallels with Leibniz, Charles Peirce - Bibliography, Charles Peirce - Primary literature, Charles Peirce - Secondary literature

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Judo assumes that there are two main phases of combat: the standing/tachi waza and the ground/newaza phase. Each phase requires its own mostly separate techniques, strategies, randori, conditioning and so on, although some special training is devoted to 'transitional' techniques to bridge the gap. Some judoka can become quite skilled in one phase and be rather weak in the other, depending on where their interests most lie, although most are rather balanced b ...

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Judo, Judo - History and philosophy, Judo - Judo's Theory of Combat, Judo - Uniform, Judo - Techniques, Judo - Gradings, Judo - Styles, Judo - Sport, Judo - Sport and beyond, Judo - Organization

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Human bodies rank along the index from around 15 (near starvation) to over 40 (morbidly obese). This statistical 'curve' is usually described using more familiar categories, for easier comprehension by health professionals; eg, severe underweight, underweight, optimum weight, pre-obese, obese, morbidly obese. The exact index values used to determine weight categories vary from authority to authority, but in general a BMI less than 18.5 is underweight and may indicate malnutrition, an eating disorder, or other health problem, while a BMI greater than 25 is overweight and above 30 is considered obese. These rang ...

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Body mass index, Body mass index - A statistical device, Body mass index - BMI in practice, Body mass index - Clinical uses, Body mass index - BMI thresholds, Body mass index - Concerns about BMI, Body mass index - Recommended BMI thresholds, Body mass index - Notes

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Peirce's reputation is based in large part on a number of academic papers published in American scholarly and scientific journals. These papers fill most of the eight volumes of the Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, published between 1931 and 1958. Perhaps the best introduction to Peirce's writings is the two volumes titled The Essential Peirce (Houser 1992, 1998). In Peirce's day, one made a name in philosophy by publishing monographs on the subject, which he never did. Nor did he ever lay out systematically h ...

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Charles Peirce, Charles Peirce - Life, Charles Peirce - Reception, Charles Peirce - Works, Charles Peirce - Major publications, Charles Peirce - Peirce's philosophy, Charles Peirce - Pragmatism, Charles Peirce - Scholastic realism, Charles Peirce - Formal perspective, Charles Peirce - Dynamics of representation, Charles Peirce - Normative sciences, Charles Peirce - Parallels with Leibniz, Charles Peirce - Bibliography, Charles Peirce - Primary literature, Charles Peirce - Secondary literature

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Denmark is the oldest monarchy in Europe. In 1849, it became a constitutional monarchy with the adoption of a new constitution. The monarch is formally head of state, a role which is mainly ceremonial, since executive power, while exercised by the monarch, is exercised through the cabinet ministers, with the prime minister acting as the first among equals (primus inter pares). Legislative power is vested in both the monarch and the Danish parliament, known ...

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Denmark, Denmark - History, Denmark - Politics and government, Denmark - Counties, Denmark - Geography, Denmark - Economy, Denmark - Demographics, Denmark - Culture, Denmark - Miscellaneous topics

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Many names have been proposed as possible authors of the Voynich manuscript. Here are only the most popular ones. Voynich manuscript - Roger Bacon. Marci's 1665 cover letter to Kircher says that, according to his late friend Raphael Mnishovsky, the book had once been bought by Emperor Rudolf II of Bohemia (1552–1612) for 600 ducats — several thousand US dollars in today's money. According to the letter, Rudolf (or perhaps Raphael) believed the author to ...

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Voynich manuscript, Voynich manuscript - Description, Voynich manuscript - Illustrations, Voynich manuscript - The text, Voynich manuscript - History, Voynich manuscript - Theories about authorship, Voynich manuscript - Roger Bacon, Voynich manuscript - John Dee, Voynich manuscript - Edward Kelley, Voynich manuscript - Wilfrid Voynich, Voynich manuscript - Jacobus Sinapius, Voynich manuscript - Jan Marci, Voynich manuscript - Raphael Mnishovsky, Voynich manuscript - Anthony Ascham, Voynich manuscript - Theories about contents and purpose, Voynich manuscript - Herbal, Voynich manuscript - Sunflowers, Voynich manuscript - Alchemy, Voynich manuscript - Alchemical herbal, Voynich manuscript - Astrological herbal, Voynich manuscript - Microscopes and telescopes, Voynich manuscript - Multiple authors, Voynich manuscript - Theories about the language, Voynich manuscript - Letter-based cipher, Voynich manuscript - Codebook cipher, Voynich manuscript - Visual cipher, Voynich manuscript - Micrography, Voynich manuscript - Steganography, Voynich manuscript - Exotic natural language, Voynich manuscript - Polyglot tongue, Voynich manuscript - Constructed language, Voynich manuscript - Hoax, Voynich manuscript - Influence on popular culture

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Charles Peirce - Primary literature. Abbreviations for frequently cited works: CE n, m = Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, vol. n, page m. CP n.m = Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vol. n, paragraph m. EP n, m = The Essential Peirce: Selected Philosophical Writings, vol. n, page m. NEM n, m = The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce, vol. n, page m. SS m = Semiotic and Significs: the Correspondence between C.S. Pei ...

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Charles Peirce, Charles Peirce - Life, Charles Peirce - Reception, Charles Peirce - Works, Charles Peirce - Major publications, Charles Peirce - Peirce's philosophy, Charles Peirce - Pragmatism, Charles Peirce - Scholastic realism, Charles Peirce - Formal perspective, Charles Peirce - Dynamics of representation, Charles Peirce - Normative sciences, Charles Peirce - Parallels with Leibniz, Charles Peirce - Bibliography, Charles Peirce - Primary literature, Charles Peirce - Secondary literature

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Denmark is divided into 13 counties (amter, singular: amt), and 271 municipalities (kommuner, singular kommune). Three municipalities have county privileges - Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, and Bornholm. The coming Danish Municipal Reform will replace the counties with five new regions and reduce the number of municipalities to 98. The new municipalities will take over most of the responsibilities of the former counties. Most of the new municipalities will have a population of at least 20,000 people. The reform will b ...

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Denmark, Denmark - History, Denmark - Politics and government, Denmark - Counties, Denmark - Geography, Denmark - Economy, Denmark - Demographics, Denmark - Culture, Denmark - Miscellaneous topics

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The history of the manuscript is still full of gaps, especially in its earliest part.[3] Since the manuscript's alphabet does not resemble any known script, and the text is still undeciphered, the only useful evidence as to the book's age and origin are the illustrations — especially the dress and hairstyles of the human figures, and a couple of castles that are seen in the diagrams. They are all characteristically European, and based on that evidence most experts assign the book to dates between 1450 and 1520. This e ...

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Voynich manuscript, Voynich manuscript - Description, Voynich manuscript - Illustrations, Voynich manuscript - The text, Voynich manuscript - History, Voynich manuscript - Theories about authorship, Voynich manuscript - Roger Bacon, Voynich manuscript - John Dee, Voynich manuscript - Edward Kelley, Voynich manuscript - Wilfrid Voynich, Voynich manuscript - Jacobus Sinapius, Voynich manuscript - Jan Marci, Voynich manuscript - Raphael Mnishovsky, Voynich manuscript - Anthony Ascham, Voynich manuscript - Theories about contents and purpose, Voynich manuscript - Herbal, Voynich manuscript - Sunflowers, Voynich manuscript - Alchemy, Voynich manuscript - Alchemical herbal, Voynich manuscript - Astrological herbal, Voynich manuscript - Microscopes and telescopes, Voynich manuscript - Multiple authors, Voynich manuscript - Theories about the language, Voynich manuscript - Letter-based cipher, Voynich manuscript - Codebook cipher, Voynich manuscript - Visual cipher, Voynich manuscript - Micrography, Voynich manuscript - Steganography, Voynich manuscript - Exotic natural language, Voynich manuscript - Polyglot tongue, Voynich manuscript - Constructed language, Voynich manuscript - Hoax, Voynich manuscript - Influence on popular culture

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It is very difficult to grasp Leibniz's philosophical thinking, because his philosophical writings consist mainly of a multitude of short pieces: journal articles, manuscripts published long after his death, and many letters to many correspondents. He only wrote two philosophical treatises, and the only one he published in his lifetime, the Théodicée of 1710, is as much theological as philosophical. Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his Discourse on Metaphysics, which he composed in 1686 as a commentary on a run ...

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Gottfried Leibniz, Gottfried Leibniz - Life, Gottfried Leibniz - Coming of age, Gottfried Leibniz - Career, Gottfried Leibniz - Writings, Gottfried Leibniz - Posthumous reputation, Gottfried Leibniz - Philosopher, Gottfried Leibniz - The Principles, Gottfried Leibniz - The Monads, Gottfried Leibniz - Theodicy and optimism, Gottfried Leibniz - Symbolic thought, Gottfried Leibniz - Formal logic, Gottfried Leibniz - Mathematician, Gottfried Leibniz - The calculus, Gottfried Leibniz - Topology, Gottfried Leibniz - Scientist and engineer, Gottfried Leibniz - Physics, Gottfried Leibniz - Other natural science, Gottfried Leibniz - Social science, Gottfried Leibniz - Technology, Gottfried Leibniz - The librarian, Gottfried Leibniz - Advocate of scientific societies, Gottfried Leibniz - Lawyer Moralist Theologian, Gottfried Leibniz - Ecumenism, Gottfried Leibniz - Philologist, Gottfried Leibniz - Sinophile, Gottfried Leibniz - Universal Genius, Gottfried Leibniz - Works, Gottfried Leibniz - Secondary literature, Gottfried Leibniz - Other works cited, Gottfried Leibniz - Quotes

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Erdős was one of the most prolific publishers of papers in mathematical history, second only to Leonhard Euler. He wrote around 1,500 mathematical articles in his lifetime, mostly with co-authors, all of them nontrivial. He had about 500 collaborators, and made mathematical collaboration a social activity in a way that changed the way many mathematicians worked. Of his contributions, the development of Ramsey theory and the application of the probabilistic method especially stand out. Extremal combinatorics owes to him a whole approach, derived in p ...

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Paul Erdős, Paul Erdős - Biography, Paul Erdős - Mathematical work, Paul Erdős - Collaborations, Paul Erdős - Erdős number, Paul Erdős - DVD collection of his works

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Rabindranath Tagore - Early life. Tagore was born in Jorasanko, Kolkata (Calcutta; Bangla: কলকাতা), the son of Debendranath Tagore and Sarada Devi. Debendranath Tagore formulated the Brahmo faith propagated by his friend, the reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Debendranath became the central figure in Brahmo society after Ray's death, who was addressed out of respect by followers as maharishi.[1] He continued to lead the Adi Brahmo Shomaj until he died.^{See also:}

Rabindranath Tagore, Rabindranath Tagore - Biography, Rabindranath Tagore - Early life, Rabindranath Tagore - Life at Shelaidaha, Rabindranath Tagore - Life at Santiniketan, Rabindranath Tagore - Literature, Rabindranath Tagore - Short stories, Rabindranath Tagore - Drama, Rabindranath Tagore - Poetry, Rabindranath Tagore - Music, Rabindranath Tagore - Novels, Rabindranath Tagore - Partial bibliography, Rabindranath Tagore - Notes

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According to the urban legend reference website Snopes.com, there have been at least two documented instances in which people have died apparently of laughter, one in 1975 and one in 2003 [1]. Since asthma attacks are fatal more often than is usually thought, and since laughter is a strong trigger for a minority of sufferers, the numbers of people who have died of laughter may very well be much larger. On 24 March 1975 Alex Mitchell, a 50-year-old bricklayer from King's Lynn, England, literally died laughing while watching an e ...

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Fatal hilarity, Fatal hilarity - In fiction, Fatal hilarity - In reality, Fatal hilarity - In history

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Bertrand Russell opined, "Beyond doubt … he was one of the most original minds of the later nineteenth century, and certainly the greatest American thinker ever." (Yet his Principia Mathematica fails to mention Peirce.) While reading some of Peirce's unpublished manuscripts soon after arriving at Harvard in 1924, Alfred North Whitehead was struck by the extent to which Peirce had anticipated his own "process" thinking. (On Peirce and process metaphysics, see the chapter by Lowe in Moore and Robin, 1964.) Karl Popper viewed Peirce as ...

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Charles Peirce, Charles Peirce - Life, Charles Peirce - Reception, Charles Peirce - Works, Charles Peirce - Major publications, Charles Peirce - Peirce's philosophy, Charles Peirce - Pragmatism, Charles Peirce - Scholastic realism, Charles Peirce - Formal perspective, Charles Peirce - Dynamics of representation, Charles Peirce - Normative sciences, Charles Peirce - Parallels with Leibniz, Charles Peirce - Bibliography, Charles Peirce - Primary literature, Charles Peirce - Secondary literature

Read more here: » Charles Peirce: Encyclopedia II - Charles Peirce - Reception