Polonization

Main article: Western civilization Westernisation - Territorial. The West was originally defined as Western Europe, but most modern uses of the term refer to the societies of Western and Central Europe and their close genealogical, linguistic, and philosophical colonial descendants, typically included are those countries whose ethnic identity and dominant culture are derived from European culture. The Western civilization can be defined as at least North-America, West and Central Europ ...

See also:

Westernisation, Westernisation - Definition of the West, Westernisation - Territorial, Westernisation - Personal, Westernisation - Differences, Westernisation - Process of Westernization, Westernisation - Colonization 1492-1960s, Westernisation - Globalization 1960s-now, Westernisation - Consequences, Westernisation - America, Westernisation - The West, Westernisation - Cultural influence, Westernisation - Other

Read more here: » Westernisation: Encyclopedia II - Westernisation - Definition of the West

Whatever the nature of the treaty, the consequences were more clear over time. Major consequences of the treaty included the separation of Ukraine from formerly dominant Catholic Poland, the re-strengthening of Orthodoxy in the historic center of Ukraine, and the eventual domination of Ukraine by neighboring Orthodox Russia. In the long run, the consequences for Ukraine were pivotal. Polish colonization and Polonization of the upper class soon became replaced by a systematic process of Russification, culminating in the Ems Ukaz, which ...

See also:

Treaty of Pereyaslav, Treaty of Pereyaslav - Historical consequences

Read more here: » Treaty of Pereyaslav: Encyclopedia II - Treaty of Pereyaslav - Historical consequences

Ukraine had a very turbulent history, a fact explained by its geographical position. Up to the fifteenth century, Ukrainians were part of the Old East Slavic stock which also gave rise to the Belarusians and Russians. However, long history of separation and foreign influences have perceptibly reshaped their ethnolinguistic identity splitting them from the rest of East Slavs. The history of independent statehood in Ukraine is started with the Cossacks. The Cossacks of Zaporizhia since the late fifteenth century controlled the lower ben ...

See also:

Ukrainians, Ukrainians - Origin, Ukrainians - History, Ukrainians - Population, Ukrainians - Religion, Ukrainians - Online references, Ukrainians - Notes

Read more here: » Ukrainians: Encyclopedia II - Ukrainians - History

Ukrainian was occasionally written in the Latin alphabet as far back as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in publications using the Polish and Czech alphabets. In the nineteenth century, there were attempts to introduce the Latin alphabet into Ukrainian writing, by Josyp Lozynskyj (Ruskoje wesile, 1834), Tomasz Padura, and other Polish-Ukrainian romantic poets. The use of the Latin alphabet for Ukrainian was promoted by authorities in Galicia under the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Franc Miklošič developed a Latin alphabet ...

See also:

Ukrainian Latin alphabet, Ukrainian Latin alphabet - History

Read more here: » Ukrainian Latin alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Ukrainian Latin alphabet - History

Ukrainian language - Perspective. Before the eighteenth century the precursor to the modern Ukrainian language was a vernacular language used mostly by peasants and petit bourgeois, existing side-by-side with a literary language of foreign origin, the Church Slavonic evolved from the Old Slavonic language from Bulgaria. Although the spoken Ukrainian language was in no danger of extinction, it was only raised to the level of a language of literature, philosophy and science by being promoted ...

See also:

Ukrainian language, Ukrainian language - History, Ukrainian language - Perspective, Ukrainian language - Origin, Ukrainian language - Ancient history, Ukrainian language - Kievan Rus' and Halych-Volhynia, Ukrainian language - Post-independence: Lithuania/Poland Muscovy/Russia and Austro-Hungary, Ukrainian language - Soviet era, Ukrainian language - Independence in the modern era, Ukrainian language - History of Ukrainian literature, Ukrainian language - Current usage, Ukrainian language - Dialects of Ukrainian, Ukrainian language - Ukrainophone population, Ukrainian language - Language structure, Ukrainian language - Comparative grammar, Ukrainian language - Phonetics, Ukrainian language - Alphabet

Read more here: » Ukrainian language: Encyclopedia II - Ukrainian language - History

The history of Belarus, or, more correctly of the Belarusian ethnicity, begins with the migration and expansion of the Slavic peoples throughout Eastern Europe between the 6th and 8th centuries Anno Domini. East Slavs settled on the territory within present-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, assimilating local Baltic (Belarus), Ugro-Finnic (Russia) and steppe nomads (Ukraine) already living there, early ethnic integrations that contributed to the gradual differentiation of the three East Slavic nations. These East Slavs were pagan, animistic, agrarian people whose economy included trade in agricul ...

See also:

History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

Read more here: » History of Belarus: Encyclopedia II - History of Belarus - Early history

History of Lithuania - Freedom wars 1918-1922. The term "Freedom wars" refers to the three wars Lithuania was fighting to defend its territory from various powers: bolsheviks, bermontians and Poles; each of these powers had their own agenda on fighting Lithuania. Bolsheviks were attacking Lithuania from the east, trying not to let it to regain independence. Such actions succeeded in some other states, such as Georgia, Belarus or Ukraine, which were also briefly independent but fallen into USSR rule ...

See also:

History of Lithuania, History of Lithuania - Before statehood, History of Lithuania - Baltic tribes, History of Lithuania - Towards the creation of single state, History of Lithuania - Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Lithuania - Pagan Lithuania, History of Lithuania - Christian Lithuania, History of Lithuania - Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth 1569-1795, History of Lithuania - Early years of new state, History of Lithuania - Wars against Swedes and Russians, History of Lithuania - Destruction of the state, History of Lithuania - Imperial Russian occupation 1795-1914, History of Lithuania - Domination of Russia, History of Lithuania - Napoleon's invasion, History of Lithuania - Persecutions, History of Lithuania - Revolts, History of Lithuania - Revival of Lithuanian Language, History of Lithuania - World War 1 1914-1918, History of Lithuania - Independent interwar Lithuania 1918-1940, History of Lithuania - Freedom wars 1918-1922, History of Lithuania - Democratic Lithuania 1922-1926, History of Lithuania - Authoritarian regime 1926-1938, History of Lithuania - Collapse of the state 1938-1940, History of Lithuania - World War II 1940-1945, History of Lithuania - First Soviet occupation 1940-1941, History of Lithuania - Independent Lithuania 1941, History of Lithuania - German occupation 1941-1944, History of Lithuania - Second Soviet occupation, History of Lithuania - Soviet occupation 1944-1990, History of Lithuania - Stalinism, History of Lithuania - Policy of Brezhnev, History of Lithuania - Policy of Khrushchev, History of Lithuania - Rebirth 1988-1990, History of Lithuania - Independent modern Lithuania 1990-2004, History of Lithuania - Struggle for independence 1990-1991, History of Lithuania - Building the new state 1991-1996, History of Lithuania - Going forward 1996-2004, History of Lithuania - Lithuania in the European Union 2004-present, History of Lithuania - External link

Read more here: » History of Lithuania: Encyclopedia II - History of Lithuania - Independent interwar Lithuania 1918-1940

Ukrainian language - Perspective. Before the eighteenth century the precursor to the modern Ukrainian language was a vernacular language used mostly by peasants and petit bourgeois, existing side-by-side with a literary language of foreign origin, the Church Slavonic evolved from the Old Slavonic language from Bulgaria. Although the spoken Ukrainian language was in no danger of extinction, it was only raised to the level of a language of literature, philosophy and science by being promoted ...

See also:

Ukrainian language, Ukrainian language - History, Ukrainian language - Perspective, Ukrainian language - Origin, Ukrainian language - Ancient history, Ukrainian language - Kievan Rus' and Halych-Volhynia, Ukrainian language - Under Lithuania/Poland Muscovy/Russia and Austro-Hungary, Ukrainian language - Soviet era, Ukrainian language - Independence in the modern era, Ukrainian language - History of Ukrainian literature, Ukrainian language - Current usage, Ukrainian language - Dialects of Ukrainian, Ukrainian language - Ukrainophone population, Ukrainian language - Language structure, Ukrainian language - Comparative grammar, Ukrainian language - Phonetics, Ukrainian language - Alphabet

Read more here: » Ukrainian language: Encyclopedia II - Ukrainian language - History

Assimilation can have negative implications for national minorities or aboriginal cultures, in that after assimilation the distinctive features of the original culture will be minimized and may disappear altogether. This is especially true in situations where the institutions of the dominant culture initiate programs to assimilate or integrate minority cultures. The assumption of integration, the making into one society, lies behind efforts for affirmative action. Assimilation is or has been the official language policy of many countries around the world.

See also:

Cultural assimilation, Cultural assimilation - Immigration, Cultural assimilation - Minority cultures, Cultural assimilation - Named cases, Cultural assimilation - Religious assimilation

Read more here: » Cultural assimilation: Encyclopedia II - Cultural assimilation - Minority cultures

Poland began to form into a recognizable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty. Poland's first historically documented ruler, Mieszko I, was baptized in 966, adopting Catholic Christianity as the country's new official religion, to which the bulk of the population converted in the course of the next century. In the 12th century Poland fragmented into several smaller states, which were later ravaged by the Mongol armies of the Golden Horde in 1241. In 1320 Władysław I became the King of ...

See also:

Poland, Poland - Name, Poland - History, Poland - Politics, Poland - Geography, Poland - Principal Cities, Poland - Administrative division, Poland - Economy, Poland - Science technology and education, Poland - Telecommunication and IT, Poland - Transportation, Poland - Tourism and holidays, Poland - Demographics, Poland - Culture, Poland - UNESCO World Heritage in Poland, Poland - International rankings

Read more here: » Poland: Encyclopedia II - Poland - History

Dislike of Russians, which is sometimes described as Russophobia, is sometimes a backlash of the policy of Russification in the times of Imperial Russia and Soviet Union and, in some non-Russian parts of the Russian Federation (e.g. Chechnya), a backlash of the policies of modern Russian government. However, some authors assert that Russophobia has a long tradition and already existed many centuries before Russ ...

See also:

Russophobia, Russophobia - Politics, Russophobia - Religious aspects, Russophobia - Examples of Russophobia, Russophobia - International

Read more here: » Russophobia: Encyclopedia II - Russophobia - Politics

The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into three stages: old Ukrainian (twelfth to fourteenth centuries), middle Ukrainian (fourteenth to eighteenth centuries), and modern Ukrainian (end of the eighteenth century to the present). Much literature was written in the periods of the old and middle Ukrainian language, including legal acts, polemical articles, science treatises and fiction of all sorts. Influential literary figures in the development of modern Ukrainian literatu ...

See also:

Ukrainian language, Ukrainian language - History, Ukrainian language - Perspective, Ukrainian language - Origin, Ukrainian language - Ancient history, Ukrainian language - Kievan Rus' and Halych-Volhynia, Ukrainian language - Under Lithuania/Poland Muscovy/Russia and Austro-Hungary, Ukrainian language - Soviet era, Ukrainian language - Independence in the modern era, Ukrainian language - History of Ukrainian literature, Ukrainian language - Current usage, Ukrainian language - Dialects of Ukrainian, Ukrainian language - Ukrainophone population, Ukrainian language - Language structure, Ukrainian language - Comparative grammar, Ukrainian language - Phonetics, Ukrainian language - Alphabet

Read more here: » Ukrainian language: Encyclopedia II - Ukrainian language - History of Ukrainian literature

The Ukrainian language is currently emerging from a long period of decline. Although there are almost fifty million ethnic Ukrainians worldwide, including 37.5 million in Ukraine (77.8% of the total population), only in western Ukraine is the Ukrainian language prevalent. In Kiev, both languages are spoken, a notable shift from the recent past when the city was primarily Russian speaking. The shift is caused, largely, by an influx of the rural population and migrants from the western regions of Ukraine but also by some Kievans' turning to us ...

See also:

Ukrainian language, Ukrainian language - History, Ukrainian language - Perspective, Ukrainian language - Origin, Ukrainian language - Ancient history, Ukrainian language - Kievan Rus' and Halych-Volhynia, Ukrainian language - Under Lithuania/Poland Muscovy/Russia and Austro-Hungary, Ukrainian language - Soviet era, Ukrainian language - Independence in the modern era, Ukrainian language - History of Ukrainian literature, Ukrainian language - Current usage, Ukrainian language - Dialects of Ukrainian, Ukrainian language - Ukrainophone population, Ukrainian language - Language structure, Ukrainian language - Comparative grammar, Ukrainian language - Phonetics, Ukrainian language - Alphabet

Read more here: » Ukrainian language: Encyclopedia II - Ukrainian language - Current usage

Ukrainian language - Comparative grammar. Old East Slavic (and Russian) o in many cases corresponds to Ukrainian i, as in pod->pid "under". The historical o is sometimes restored in certain declensions of Ukrainian words, such as rik (nom): rotsi (loc) "year". Also, the letter Г renders different consonants in Old East Slavic and Ukrainian, see language notes in Cyrillic alphabet. Ukrainian Г is the voiced cognate of Old East Slavic Х (an ...

See also:

Ukrainian language, Ukrainian language - History, Ukrainian language - Perspective, Ukrainian language - Origin, Ukrainian language - Ancient history, Ukrainian language - Kievan Rus' and Halych-Volhynia, Ukrainian language - Under Lithuania/Poland Muscovy/Russia and Austro-Hungary, Ukrainian language - Soviet era, Ukrainian language - Independence in the modern era, Ukrainian language - History of Ukrainian literature, Ukrainian language - Current usage, Ukrainian language - Dialects of Ukrainian, Ukrainian language - Ukrainophone population, Ukrainian language - Language structure, Ukrainian language - Comparative grammar, Ukrainian language - Phonetics, Ukrainian language - Alphabet

Read more here: » Ukrainian language: Encyclopedia II - Ukrainian language - Language structure

"Need, hunger, lack of comfort have been a lot of Russians for centuries. No false compassion, as their stomaches are perfectly extensible. Don't try to impose the German standards and to change their style of life. Their only wish is to be ruled by the Germans. Help yourselves, and the God will help you!" ("12 precepts for the German officer in the East", 1941, [9]) "Russophobia" and "Russophobic" are the terms used to denote anti-R ...

See also:

Russophobia, Russophobia - Politics, Russophobia - Religious aspects, Russophobia - Examples of Russophobia, Russophobia - International

Read more here: » Russophobia: Encyclopedia II - Russophobia - International

The Lublin Union of 1569 constituted the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and the largest multinational empire in Europe. While Ukraine and Podlasia became subject to the Polish Crown, Belarus was still regarded as part of Lithuania. The new polity was dominated by much more densely populated Poland, which had 134 representatives in the Sejm as compared to 46 representatives of the Grand Duchy. However the Grand Duchy retained much autonomy, and was governed by a separate code of laws called the Li ...

See also:

History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

Read more here: » History of Belarus: Encyclopedia II - History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR. Main articles: Belarus National Republic and Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic World War I was the short period when Belarusian culture started to flourish. German administration allowed schools with Belarusian language, previously banned in Russia; a number of Belarusian schools were created until 1919 when they were banned again by Polish military administration. At the end of World War I, when Belarus ...

See also:

History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

Read more here: » History of Belarus: Encyclopedia II - History of Belarus - 20th century

Russophobia is closely connected with religious aspects. In the centuries following the East-West Schism of 1054, the Roman Catholic Church led several efforts aimed at gaining control of East European territory and converting its inhabitants into Catholicism (see, for example, the Northern Crusades of the Teutonic Knights or Polonization in Ukraine and Belarus). Orthodox Christians were vilified as heathens and heretics, and ...

See also:

Russophobia, Russophobia - Politics, Russophobia - Religious aspects, Russophobia - Examples of Russophobia, Russophobia - International

Read more here: » Russophobia: Encyclopedia II - Russophobia - Religious aspects

Under Russian administration, the territory of Belarus was divided into the guberniyas of Minsk, Vitebsk, Mogilyov, and Hrodno. Belarusians were active in guerrilla movement against Napoleon's occupation and did their best to annihilate the remains of the Grande Armée when it crossed the Berezina River in November 1812[citation needed]. With Napoleon's defeat, Belarus again became a part of Imperial Russia and its guberniyas constituted part of the Northwestern Krai. The anti-Russian uprisings of the gentry[8]See also:

History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

Read more here: » History of Belarus: Encyclopedia II - History of Belarus - Russian Empire

On 27 July 1990, Belarus declared its national sovereignty, a key step toward independence from the Soviet Union. The BSSR was formally renamed the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991. Around that time, Stanislav Shushkevich became the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus. Shushkevich, along with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine met on December 8, 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha, to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union an ...

See also:

History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

Read more here: » History of Belarus: Encyclopedia II - History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus

Persecution and ethnic cleansing of ethnic Russians in the Caucasus has been going on for almost 2 decades now. Recently, terrorist attacks by armed gunmen against Orthodox priests, Protestant ministers, and foreign workers have caused further tension in the minority Orthodox and Protestant Christian community. Russian and other "foreign" Christian groups have either left the region or been advised by Russian Baptist Union to do so. From 1991 to 1994, as many as 300,000 people of non-Chechen ethnicity (mostly Russians) ...

See also:

Russophobia, Russophobia - Politics, Russophobia - Religious aspects, Russophobia - Examples of Russophobia, Russophobia - International

Read more here: » Russophobia: Encyclopedia II - Russophobia - Examples of Russophobia