The 17th century saw fierce rivalry between the then major Eastern European powers – Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. At its heyday, the Commonwealth comprised the territories of present-day Poland, and large parts of Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Russia, and represented a major European power. However, by the end of the 17th century a series of internal conflicts and wars with foreign enemies led to the dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the partitioning of most of it ...

See also:

List of Polish wars, List of Polish wars - Piast Poland, List of Polish wars - Jagiellon Poland, List of Polish wars - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, List of Polish wars - Partitions, List of Polish wars - Second Polish Republic and World War II, List of Polish wars - People's Republic of Poland, List of Polish wars - Third Polish Republic

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The Lublin Union of 1569 constituted the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and the largest multinational empire in Europe. While Ukraine and Podlasia became subject to the Polish Crown, Belarus was still regarded as part of Lithuania. The new polity was dominated by much more densely populated Poland, which had 134 representatives in the Sejm as compared to 46 representatives of the Grand Duchy. However the Grand Duchy retained much autonomy, and was governed by a separate code of laws called the Li ...

See also:

History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

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Between 1503 and 1522 the city was surrounded with walls that had nine gates and three towers. Communities of Poles, Lithuanians and Belarusians were present in different areas of Vilnius. The town reached the peak of its development under the reign of Sigismund II of Poland, who moved his court there in 1544. In the following centuries, Vilnius became a constantly growing and developing city. This growth was due in part, to the establishment of Vilnius University by Stefan Batory, Grand Duke of Lithuania and king of Poland, in 1579. The uni ...

See also:

History of Vilnius, History of Vilnius - Middle ages, History of Vilnius - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Vilnius - Russian occupation, History of Vilnius - Interwar period, History of Vilnius - Polish-Lithuanian conflict, History of Vilnius - Poland, History of Vilnius - Second World War, History of Vilnius - Soviet occupation, History of Vilnius - Independent Lithuania

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Valois Dynasty 1573-1574 — Henryk III Walezy (abandoned the Polish-Lithuanian throne) Jagiellon Dynasty 1575-1586 — Anna Jagiellon (from 1576, reigned together with her husband, Stefan Batory) House of Báthory 1576-1586 — Stefan Batory (reigned together with his wife, Anna Jagiellon) Vasa Dynasty 1587-1632 — Zygmunt III Vasa 1632-1648 — Władysław IV Vasa 1648-1668 — Jan II Kazimierz Vasa (abdicated) House of WiŠ...

See also:

List of Polish monarchs, List of Polish monarchs - Kingdom of Poland of the Piasts, List of Polish monarchs - Early Piasts, List of Polish monarchs - Fragmentation, List of Polish monarchs - Late Piasts, List of Polish monarchs - Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons, List of Polish monarchs - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, List of Polish monarchs - Partitions 1795-1918, List of Polish monarchs - Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, List of Polish monarchs - Duchy of Warsaw, List of Polish monarchs - Congress Kingdom, List of Polish monarchs - Grand Duchy of Poznań

Read more here: » List of Polish monarchs: Encyclopedia II - List of Polish monarchs - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the Jagiellon dynasty. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy. The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th century. Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles ...

See also:

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - History, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - State organization and politics, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Commonwealth military, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Golden Liberty, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - The political players, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Shortcomings of the Commonwealth, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Late reforms, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Economy, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Culture, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Szlachta and Sarmatism, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Demographics and religion, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Provinces and geography, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Voivodships of the Commonwealth

Read more here: » Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Encyclopedia II - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - History

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania began its rise to great power status under the reign of the king Mindaugas (or MindoÅ­h in Belarusian) beginning in 1238. The duchy expanded both south and east, incorporating large quantities of former Rus lands in both directions. Expansion reached its height under Gediminas (Belarusian language: Hiedzimin) who created a strong central government and succeed in creating and empire that spread from the Black to the Baltic sea. The ease with which Lithuania built up an empire can be accredited to th ...

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Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - History, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Military, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Religion, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Culture, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Legacy, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Sources

Read more here: » Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Encyclopedia II - Grand Duchy of Lithuania - History

Catherine the Great (April 21, 1729—November 6, 1796 (O.S.)), born Sophie Augusta Fredericka of Anhalt-Zerbst, reigned as Empress of Russia from June 28, 1762 to her death. A cousin to Gustav III of Sweden and Charles XIII of Sweden, Catherine is referred to as an "enlightened monarch" (also referred to as an "enlightened despot"), though some argue that this title is exaggerated. A German Princess, Sophie Augusta Fredericka (nicknamed Figchen) was born in Stettin to Christian Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, ...

Including:

• Catherine II of Russia - Internal policies
• Catherine II of Russia - Foreign affairs
• Catherine II of Russia - Arts and culture
• Catherine II of Russia - Personal life
• Catherine II of Russia - Trivia
• Catherine II of Russia - List of great Catharinians

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History of Poland 1569–1795 - Zygmunt III Waza 1587–1632. The first few years of Sigismund's reign, until 1598 saw Poland and Sweden united in a personal union that made the Baltic sea an internal lake. However, the rebellion in Sweden started the chain of events that would involve Commonwealth in more than a century of warfare with Sweden. In the end, Sigismund III Waza failed to strengthen the Commonwealth nor to solve its internal problems; instead he concentrated on a futile attempt to regain his former Swedish throne. His ...

See also:

History of Poland 1569–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Founding of The Elective Monarchy, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Henryk II Walezy 1572–1573, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stefan Batory 1576–1586, History of Poland 1569–1795 - House of Vasa, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Zygmunt III Waza 1587–1632, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Polish-Sweden-Muscovy Wars, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Władysław IV Waza 1632-1648, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Jan Kazimierz Vasa 1648–1668, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Decay of the Commonwealth, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki King 1669–1673, History of Poland 1569–1795 - John III Sobieski King 1674–1696, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Augustus II the Strong Wettin King 1697–1706 1709–1733, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanislaw Leszczynski King 1706–1709 1733–1736, History of Poland 1569–1795 - August III Wettin King 1733–1763, History of Poland 1569–1795 - The Three Partitions 1764-1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Stanisław August Poniatowski King 1764–1795, History of Poland 1569–1795 - Reference

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It was an important victory for Polish noblemen (szlachta) over the kings. This act (called a constitution in Poland) forbade the king to pass new laws without the agreement from szlachta representatives (Sejm and Senat), with the exceptions of laws regarding royal cities, crown lands (królewszczyzny), mines, fiefdoms, peasants, and Jews. This act replaced the act of Mielno (akt mielnicki, which strengthened the magnates only) and thus tipped the balance of power in favour of the Sejm (parliament), where lesser nobility held much power. This act is often ...

See also:

Nihil novi, Nihil novi - Nihil novi nisi commune consensu, Nihil novi - Text of the act

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The Grand Duchy of Lithuania began its rise to the great power status under the reign of Grand Duke Mindaugas (or MindoÅ­h in Belarusian) beginning in 1238. Mindaugas became baptized in 1252 and crowned King of Lithuania in 1253 (in 1260, he renounced Christianity). After him there was a fight among Lithuanian dukes, but the state survived. The duchy expanded southward and eastward, incorporating large parts of Rus. The expansion reached its height under Gediminas (Belarusian language: Hiedzimin), who created a strong central g ...

See also:

Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - History, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Military, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Religion, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Culture, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Legacy, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Sources

Read more here: » Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Encyclopedia II - Grand Duchy of Lithuania - History

Whatever the nature of the treaty, the consequences were more clear over time. Major consequences of the treaty included the separation of Ukraine from formerly dominant Catholic Poland, the re-strengthening of Orthodoxy in the historic center of Ukraine, and the eventual domination of Ukraine by neighboring Orthodox Russia. In the long run, the consequences for Ukraine were pivotal. Polish colonization and Polonization of the upper class soon became replaced by a systematic process of Russification, culminating in the Ems Ukaz, which ...

See also:

Treaty of Pereyaslav, Treaty of Pereyaslav - Historical consequences

Read more here: » Treaty of Pereyaslav: Encyclopedia II - Treaty of Pereyaslav - Historical consequences

The German practice of electing monarchs began when ancient Germanic tribes formed ad hoc coalitions and elected the leaders thereof. Elections were irregularly held by the Franks, whose successor states include France and Germany. The French monarchy eventually became hereditary, but the German monarchy continued to remain elective. While all men originally exercised the right to vote in such elections, suffrage eventually came to be limited to the leading men of the realm. In the election of Lothar II in 1125, a small number of emin ...

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Prince-elector, Prince-elector - Composition, Prince-elector - Rights and privileges, Prince-elector - Reichstag, Prince-elector - Elections, Prince-elector - High Offices

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"1647 was a strange year in which signs on earth and the sky seemed to announce disasters and unusual even Contemporary chroniclers recall the huge numbers of locusts swarming from the Wild Fields and destroying crops and grass, which forecast Tartar raids. There was a grand eclipse of the sun in the summer and shortly after, a comet appeared in the sky." "Finally, came winter, so mild that the olders persons cannot recall anything like it. The water did not freeze-over in the southern provinces and the snow, which melted every morning, em ...

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With Fire and Sword, With Fire and Sword - Quote

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The Grand Duchy of Lithuania began its rise under the reign of Grand Duke Mindaugas (or MindoÅ­h in Belarusian) beginning in 1238. Mindaugas was baptized in 1252 and crowned King of Lithuania in 1253 (in 1260, he abandoned Christianity). After him there was a fight among Lithuanian dukes, but the state survived. The duchy expanded southward and eastward, incorporating large parts of Ruthenia. The expansion reached its heights under Gediminas (Belarusian language: Hiedzimin), who created a strong central government and establish ...

See also:

Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - History, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Military, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Religion, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Culture, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Legacy, Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Sources

Read more here: » Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Encyclopedia II - Grand Duchy of Lithuania - History

In the early 1770's, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was in a particularly challenging situation, threatened by its neighbors on all sides, particularly Russia, Prussia and Austria. In an attempt to retain independence against the superior military might of the three great powers, some Poles joined together to form the Bar Confederation. One member of the confederation, a Count Wielhorski, approached both Rousseau and Gabriel Bonnet de Mably to submit suggestions for the reformation of Poland's unique "Golden Liberty," which had deteriorated from a semi-repu ...

See also:

Considerations on the Government of Poland, Considerations on the Government of Poland - Commission, Considerations on the Government of Poland - Structure and recommendations, Considerations on the Government of Poland - Within Rousseau's oeuvre, Considerations on the Government of Poland - Notes, Considerations on the Government of Poland - Online text

Read more here: » Considerations on the Government of Poland: Encyclopedia II - Considerations on the Government of Poland - Commission

Note that historical confederations, especially those that predate the 20th century, may not fit the current definition of a confederation and may show some qualities that are today recognized as those of a federation. Crown of Aragon (1137–1716) Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) (different governments, armies, treasuries, laws, territories with borders, citizenships; common monarch (Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland), parliament (Seimas,Sejm) and currency) Switzerland (1291–1848) < ...

See also:

Confederation, Confederation - Confederation vs. federation, Confederation - Confederation as an event, Confederation - Confederation day, Confederation - List of entities considered to be confederations, Confederation - Fictional confederations

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Battle of Cecora (also known as Battle of Ţuţora) was a battle between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (assisted by Moldavian troops) and Ottoman forces (backed by Tatars), fought from September 17 to October 7, 1620 in Moldavia, near the Prut river. Battle of Cecora - Prelude to battle. Following the failure of Commonwealth diplomatic mission to Istanbul, and violations of the Treaty of Busza by both sides (as Cossacks and Tatars continued their raids across the borders), relations between the ...

Including:

• Battle of Cecora - Prelude to battle
• Battle of Cecora - The battle
• Battle of Cecora - Notes

Read more here: » Battle of Cecora: Encyclopedia - Battle of Cecora

Battle of Kircholm (September 27, 1605) was one of the major battles in the Polish-Swedish War of 1600-1611. The battle was decided in 20 minutes by the devastating charge of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth cavalry, the Winged Hussars. The battle ended in the decisive victory of Polish forces, and is remembered in Poland as the greatest triumph of Polish cavalry ever. Battle of Kircholm - History. Battle of Kircholm - Eve of the Battle. On September 27, 1605, the Polish-Lithuania ...

Including:

• Battle of Kircholm - History
• Battle of Kircholm - Eve of the Battle
• Battle of Kircholm - Deployment
• Battle of Kircholm - Battle
• Battle of Kircholm - After the Battle

Read more here: » Battle of Kircholm: Encyclopedia - Battle of Kircholm

The Baltic languages are a group of related languages belonging to the Indo-European language family and spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. The language group is sometimes divided into two sub-groups: Western Baltic, containing only extinct languages, and Eastern Baltic, containing both extinct and the two living languages in the group: Lithuanian and Latvian (including both literary Latvian and Latgalian). While related, the Lithuanian, the Latvian, and particularly ...

Including:

• Baltic languages - Geographic distribution
• Baltic languages - History
• Baltic languages - Relationship with other Indo-European languages

Read more here: » Baltic languages: Encyclopedia - Baltic languages

The terms "Baltic countries", "Baltic Sea countries", "Baltic states", and "Balticum" refer to slightly different combinations of countries in the general area surrounding the Baltic Sea. Baltic countries - Baltic Sea countries and Balticum. Geographically, the Baltic Sea countries are countries that have access to the Baltic Sea: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Sweden. The Baltic Sea countries, together with Norway, Iceland and t ...

Including:

• Baltic countries - Baltic Sea countries and Balticum
• Baltic countries - Baltic states
• Baltic countries - History of the Baltic states
• Baltic countries - Language and Culture in the Baltic states
• Baltic countries - Tourism of the Baltic states
• Baltic countries - Related statistics
• Baltic countries - Other uses

Read more here: » Baltic countries: Encyclopedia - Baltic countries