Indole is a major constituent of coal-tar, and the 220-260 °C distillation fraction is the main industrial source of the material. Indole and its derivatives can also be synthesized by a variety of methods. Indole - Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis. The Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis is an efficient method of sythesizing indole and substituted indoles. Originally disclosed in a patent in 1976, this method is high-yielding and can generate substituted indoles. This method is especially popular in the pharmaceutical industry, where many pharmaceutical drugs are ...

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Indole, Indole - History, Indole - Synthesis of indoles, Indole - Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis, Indole - Fischer indole synthesis, Indole - Other indole forming reactions, Indole - Chemical reactions of indole, Indole - Nitrogen basicity, Indole - Electrophilic substitution, Indole - Nitrogen-H acidity and organometallic indole anion complexes, Indole - Carbon acidity and C-2 lithiation, Indole - Oxidation of indole, Indole - Cycloadditions of indole, Indole - Applications, Indole - General references

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The functional group of an alcohol is a hydroxyl group bonded to an sp3 hybridized carbon. It can therefore be regarded as a derivative of water, with an alkyl group replacing one of the hydrogens. If an aryl group is present rather than an alkyl, the compound is generally called a phenol rather than an alcohol. The oxygen in an alcohol has a bond angle of around 109° (c.f. 104.5° in water), and two nonbonded electron pairs. The O-H bond in methanol (CH3OH) is around 96 picometres long. Alcohol - Primary se ...

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Alcohol, Alcohol - Structure, Alcohol - Primary secondary and tertiary alcohols, Alcohol - Methanol & ethanol, Alcohol - Uses, Alcohol - Sources, Alcohol - Nomenclature, Alcohol - Systematic names, Alcohol - Etymology, Alcohol - Physical and chemical properties, Alcohol - Toxicity, Alcohol - Preparation of alcohols, Alcohol - Laboratory, Alcohol - Industrial, Alcohol - Reactions of alcohols, Alcohol - Deprotonation, Alcohol - Nucleophilic substitution, Alcohol - Dehydration, Alcohol - Esterification, Alcohol - Oxidation

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Alcohols are in wide use in industry and science as reagents, solvents, and fuels. Ethanol and methanol can be made to burn more cleanly than gasoline or diesel. Because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non-polar substances, ethanol is often used as a solvent in medical drugs, perfumes, and vegetable essences such as vanilla. In organic synthesis, alcohols frequently serve as versatile intermediates. Ethanol is also commonly used in beverages after fermentation to promote flavor or induce a euphoric intoxication commonly kn ...

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Alcohol, Alcohol - Structure, Alcohol - Primary secondary and tertiary alcohols, Alcohol - Methanol & ethanol, Alcohol - Uses, Alcohol - Sources, Alcohol - Nomenclature, Alcohol - Systematic names, Alcohol - Etymology, Alcohol - Physical and chemical properties, Alcohol - Toxicity, Alcohol - Preparation of alcohols, Alcohol - Laboratory, Alcohol - Industrial, Alcohol - Reactions of alcohols, Alcohol - Deprotonation, Alcohol - Nucleophilic substitution, Alcohol - Dehydration, Alcohol - Esterification, Alcohol - Oxidation

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Alcohols often have an odor described as 'biting' that 'hangs' in the nasal passages. Ethanol in the form of alcoholic beverages has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times, for a variety of hygienic, dietary, medicinal, religious, and recreational reasons. While infrequent consumption of ethanol in small quantities may be harmless or even beneficial, larger doses result in a state known as drunkenness or intoxication and, depending on the dose and regularity of use, can cause acute respiratory failure or death and with ch ...

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Alcohol, Alcohol - Structure, Alcohol - Primary secondary and tertiary alcohols, Alcohol - Methanol & ethanol, Alcohol - Uses, Alcohol - Sources, Alcohol - Nomenclature, Alcohol - Systematic names, Alcohol - Etymology, Alcohol - Physical and chemical properties, Alcohol - Toxicity, Alcohol - Preparation of alcohols, Alcohol - Laboratory, Alcohol - Industrial, Alcohol - Reactions of alcohols, Alcohol - Deprotonation, Alcohol - Nucleophilic substitution, Alcohol - Dehydration, Alcohol - Esterification, Alcohol - Oxidation

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Alcohol - Laboratory. Several methods exist for the preparation of alcohols in the laboratory. Primary Alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH mainly to primary alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride. (after an acidic workup) Alkenes engage in a acid catalysed hydration reaction usin ...

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Alcohol, Alcohol - Structure, Alcohol - Primary secondary and tertiary alcohols, Alcohol - Methanol & ethanol, Alcohol - Uses, Alcohol - Sources, Alcohol - Nomenclature, Alcohol - Systematic names, Alcohol - Etymology, Alcohol - Physical and chemical properties, Alcohol - Toxicity, Alcohol - Preparation of alcohols, Alcohol - Laboratory, Alcohol - Industrial, Alcohol - Reactions of alcohols, Alcohol - Deprotonation, Alcohol - Nucleophilic substitution, Alcohol - Dehydration, Alcohol - Esterification, Alcohol - Oxidation

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Hydrogen sulfide is a covalent hydride chemically related to water (H2O) since oxygen and sulfur occur in the same periodic table group. Hydrogen sulfide is weakly acidic, dissociating in aqueous solution into hydrogen cations H+ and the hydrosulfide anion HS−: H2S → HS− + H+ Ka = 1.3×10−7 mol/L; pK ...

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Hydrogen sulfide, Hydrogen sulfide - Chemistry, Hydrogen sulfide - Occurrence, Hydrogen sulfide - Manufacture and use, Hydrogen sulfide - Dangers, Hydrogen sulfide - Health effects, Hydrogen sulfide - Function in the body, Hydrogen sulfide - Induced hibernation, Hydrogen sulfide - Participant in the sulfur cycle, Hydrogen sulfide - Reference

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Nitric acid is made by mixing nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with water. Creating a very pure nitric acid usually involves distillation with sulfuric acid, as nitric acid forms an azeotrope with water with a composition of 68% nitric acid and 32% water. Commercial grade nitric acid solutions are usually between 52% and 68% nitric acid. Commercial production of nitric acid is via the Ostwald process after Wilhelm Ostwald. Nitric acid can be made by reacting 200 g of potassium nitrate (KNO3) in 106 ml of 96% sulfuric acid ...

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Nitric acid, Nitric acid - History, Nitric acid - Chemistry, Nitric acid - Synthesis and Production, Nitric acid - Uses

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The functional group of an alcohol is a hydroxyl group bonded to an sp³ hybridized carbon. It can therefore be regarded as a derivative of water, with an alkyl group replacing one of the hydrogens. If an aryl group is present rather than an alkyl, the compound is generally called a phenol rather than an alcohol. Also, if the hydroxyl group is bonded to one of the sp² hybridized carbons of an alkenyl group, the compound is referred to as an enol. The oxygen in an alcohol has a bond angle of around 109° (c.f. 104.5° in water), and two nonbonded electron pairs. The O-H bond in methanol (CH3See also:

Alcohol, Alcohol - Structure, Alcohol - Primary secondary and tertiary alcohols, Alcohol - Methanol & ethanol, Alcohol - Uses, Alcohol - Sources, Alcohol - Nomenclature, Alcohol - Systematic names, Alcohol - Etymology, Alcohol - Physical and chemical properties, Alcohol - Toxicity, Alcohol - Preparation of alcohols, Alcohol - Laboratory, Alcohol - Industrial, Alcohol - Reactions of alcohols, Alcohol - Deprotonation, Alcohol - Nucleophilic substitution, Alcohol - Dehydration, Alcohol - Esterification, Alcohol - Oxidation

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Aldehyde - Preparation. There are three notable methods for preparing aldehydes: Reacting a primary alcohol with an oxidizing agent, Reacting an alkene (if there is a vinylic hydrogen) with ozone will cause the C=C bond to break yielding an aldehyde upon workup, in a process called ozonolysis. Reacting an ester with DIBAL-H can cause reduction, yielding an aldehyde. Reduction of an acid chloride ...

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Aldehyde, Aldehyde - Structure, Aldehyde - α carbon & α hydrogen, Aldehyde - Carbonyl group, Aldehyde - Nomenclature, Aldehyde - Physical properties, Aldehyde - Chemistry, Aldehyde - Preparation, Aldehyde - Common reactions, Aldehyde - Nucleophilic addition, Aldehyde - Keto-enol tautomerism, Aldehyde - Oxidation & Reduction, Aldehyde - Examples of Aldehydes, Aldehyde - Etymology

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Alkane - Physical properties. The molecular structure, particularly the surface area of the molecule, determines the boiling point of the alkane: the smaller the surface, the lower the boiling point, as the van der Waals forces between the molecules are weaker. A reduction of the surface area can be achieved by chain-branching or by a circular structure. This means in practice that alkanes with higher number of carbon atoms usually have higher boiling points than those with lower numbers of carbon atoms, and that ...

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Alkane, Alkane - Isomerism, Alkane - Nomenclature of alkanes, Alkane - Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains, Alkane - Alkanes with branched carbon chains, Alkane - Trivial names, Alkane - Occurrence, Alkane - Purification and use, Alkane - Preparation, Alkane - Molecular geometry, Alkane - Bond lengths and bond angles, Alkane - Conformation, Alkane - Properties, Alkane - Physical properties, Alkane - Chemical properties, Alkane - Thermochemistry, Alkane - Spectroscopic properties, Alkane - Reactions, Alkane - Reactions with oxygen, Alkane - Reactions with halogens, Alkane - Cracking and reforming, Alkane - Other reactions, Alkane - Hazards, Alkane - Alkanes in nature, Alkane - Bacteria and archaea, Alkane - Fungi and plants, Alkane - Animals, Alkane - Ecological relations

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Alcohol - Systematic names. In the IUPAC system, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal "e" and adds "ol", e.g. "methanol" and "ethanol". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the "ol": propan-1-ol for CH3CH2CH2OH, propan-2-ol for CH3CH(OH)CH3. Sometimes, the position number is written before the IUPAC name: 1-propanol and 2-propanol. If a higher priority group is present (such as an a ...

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Alcohol, Alcohol - Structure, Alcohol - Primary secondary and tertiary alcohols, Alcohol - Methanol & ethanol, Alcohol - Uses, Alcohol - Sources, Alcohol - Nomenclature, Alcohol - Systematic names, Alcohol - Etymology, Alcohol - Physical and chemical properties, Alcohol - Toxicity, Alcohol - Preparation of alcohols, Alcohol - Laboratory, Alcohol - Industrial, Alcohol - Reactions of alcohols, Alcohol - Deprotonation, Alcohol - Nucleophilic substitution, Alcohol - Dehydration, Alcohol - Esterification, Alcohol - Oxidation

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In water the following reversible reaction occurs between an acid (HA) and water, which acts as a base: The acidity constant (or acid dissociation constant) is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of HA with water: Strong acids have large Ka values (i.e. the reaction equilibrium lies far to the right, lots of H3O+ present; the acid is almost completely dissociated). For example, the Ka val ...

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Acid, Acid - Chemical characteristics, Acid - Number of acid dissociations, Acid - Characteristics of acids, Acid - Different definitions of acid/base, Acid - Acid number, Acid - Neutralization, Acid - Naming acids, Acid - Common acids, Acid - Strong inorganic acids, Acid - Medium to weak inorganic acids, Acid - Weak organic acids, Acid - Acids in food, Acid - Sources

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Concentrated acetic acid is corrosive and must therefore be handled with appropriate care, since it can cause skin burns, permanent eye damage, and irritation to the mucous membranes. These burns or blisters may not appear until several hours after exposure. Latex gloves offer no protection, so specially resistant gloves, such as those made of nitrile rubber, should be worn when handling the compound. Concentrated acetic acid can be ignited with some difficulty in the laboratory. It becomes a flammable risk if the ambient temperature exceeds 39 °C (102 °F), and can form explosive mixtures with air above this tempe ...

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Acetic acid, Acetic acid - Nomenclature, Acetic acid - History, Acetic acid - Chemical properties, Acetic acid - Biochemistry, Acetic acid - Production, Acetic acid - Methanol carbonylation, Acetic acid - Acetaldehyde oxidation, Acetic acid - Ethylene oxidation, Acetic acid - Fermentation, Acetic acid - Applications, Acetic acid - Vinyl acetate monomer, Acetic acid - Acetic anhydride, Acetic acid - Ester production, Acetic acid - Vinegar, Acetic acid - Use as solvent, Acetic acid - Other applications, Acetic acid - Safety

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The trivial name acetic acid is the most commonly used and officially preferred name by the IUPAC. This name derives from acetum, the Latin word for vinegar. The synonym ethanoic acid is a systematic name that is sometimes used in introductions to chemical nomenclature. Glacial acetic acid is a trivial name for water-free acetic acid. Similar to the German name Eisessig (literally, ice-vinegar), the name comes from the ice-like crystals that form sligh ...

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Acetic acid, Acetic acid - Nomenclature, Acetic acid - History, Acetic acid - Chemical properties, Acetic acid - Biochemistry, Acetic acid - Production, Acetic acid - Methanol carbonylation, Acetic acid - Acetaldehyde oxidation, Acetic acid - Ethylene oxidation, Acetic acid - Fermentation, Acetic acid - Applications, Acetic acid - Vinyl acetate monomer, Acetic acid - Acetic anhydride, Acetic acid - Ester production, Acetic acid - Vinegar, Acetic acid - Use as solvent, Acetic acid - Other applications, Acetic acid - Safety

Read more here: » Acetic acid: Encyclopedia II - Acetic acid - Nomenclature

Vinegar is as old as civilization itself, perhaps older. Acetic acid-producing bacteria are present throughout the world, and any culture practicing the brewing of beer or wine inevitably discovered vinegar as the natural result of these alcoholic beverages being exposed to air. The use of acetic acid in chemistry extends into antiquity. In the 3rd century BC, the Greek philosopher Theophrastos described how vinegar acted on metals to produce pigments useful in art, including white lead (lead carbonate) and verdigris, a ...

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Acetic acid, Acetic acid - Nomenclature, Acetic acid - History, Acetic acid - Chemical properties, Acetic acid - Biochemistry, Acetic acid - Production, Acetic acid - Methanol carbonylation, Acetic acid - Acetaldehyde oxidation, Acetic acid - Ethylene oxidation, Acetic acid - Fermentation, Acetic acid - Applications, Acetic acid - Vinyl acetate monomer, Acetic acid - Acetic anhydride, Acetic acid - Ester production, Acetic acid - Vinegar, Acetic acid - Use as solvent, Acetic acid - Other applications, Acetic acid - Safety

Read more here: » Acetic acid: Encyclopedia II - Acetic acid - History

The acetyl group, derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to the biochemistry of virtually all forms of life. When bound to coenzyme A it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. However, the concentration of free acetic acid in cells is kept at a low level to avoid disrupting the control of the pH of the cell contents. Unlike some longer-chain carboxylic acids (the fatty acids), acetic acid does not occur in natural triglycerides. However, the artificial triglyceride triacetin (glycerin triacetate) is a common food additive, and ...

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Acetic acid, Acetic acid - Nomenclature, Acetic acid - History, Acetic acid - Chemical properties, Acetic acid - Biochemistry, Acetic acid - Production, Acetic acid - Methanol carbonylation, Acetic acid - Acetaldehyde oxidation, Acetic acid - Ethylene oxidation, Acetic acid - Fermentation, Acetic acid - Applications, Acetic acid - Vinyl acetate monomer, Acetic acid - Acetic anhydride, Acetic acid - Ester production, Acetic acid - Vinegar, Acetic acid - Use as solvent, Acetic acid - Other applications, Acetic acid - Safety

Read more here: » Acetic acid: Encyclopedia II - Acetic acid - Biochemistry

The names of all alkanes end with -ane. Alkane - Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: methane, CH4 ethane, C2H6 propane, C3H8 butane, C4H10 Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to the appropriate numerical multiplier with elision ...

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Alkane, Alkane - Isomerism, Alkane - Nomenclature of alkanes, Alkane - Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains, Alkane - Alkanes with branched carbon chains, Alkane - Trivial names, Alkane - Occurrence, Alkane - Purification and use, Alkane - Preparation, Alkane - Molecular geometry, Alkane - Bond lengths and bond angles, Alkane - Conformation, Alkane - Properties, Alkane - Physical properties, Alkane - Chemical properties, Alkane - Thermochemistry, Alkane - Spectroscopic properties, Alkane - Reactions, Alkane - Reactions with oxygen, Alkane - Reactions with halogens, Alkane - Cracking and reforming, Alkane - Other reactions, Alkane - Hazards, Alkane - Alkanes in nature, Alkane - Bacteria and archaea, Alkane - Fungi and plants, Alkane - Animals, Alkane - Ecological relations

Read more here: » Alkane: Encyclopedia II - Alkane - Nomenclature of alkanes

Alkanes occur both on Earth and in the solar system, however only the first hundred or so, and even then mostly only in traces. The light hydrocarbons, especially methane and ethane are of great importance for other heavenly bodies: they are found, for example, both in the tail of the comet Hyakutake and in some meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites. They also form an important portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. On Titan, the satellite of Saturn, it is believed that there were once large oceans of these and longer chain alkanes: smaller seas of liquid eth ...

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Alkane, Alkane - Isomerism, Alkane - Nomenclature of alkanes, Alkane - Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains, Alkane - Alkanes with branched carbon chains, Alkane - Trivial names, Alkane - Occurrence, Alkane - Purification and use, Alkane - Preparation, Alkane - Molecular geometry, Alkane - Bond lengths and bond angles, Alkane - Conformation, Alkane - Properties, Alkane - Physical properties, Alkane - Chemical properties, Alkane - Thermochemistry, Alkane - Spectroscopic properties, Alkane - Reactions, Alkane - Reactions with oxygen, Alkane - Reactions with halogens, Alkane - Cracking and reforming, Alkane - Other reactions, Alkane - Hazards, Alkane - Alkanes in nature, Alkane - Bacteria and archaea, Alkane - Fungi and plants, Alkane - Animals, Alkane - Ecological relations

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Fatty acid - Saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids do not contain any double bonds or other functional groups along the chain. The term "saturated" refers to hydrogen, in that all carbons (apart from the carboxylic acid [-COOH] group) contain as many hydrogens as possible. In other words, the omega (ω) end contains 3 hydrogens (CH3-) and each carbon within ...

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Fatty acid, Fatty acid - Types of fatty acids, Fatty acid - Saturated fatty acids, Fatty acid - Unsaturated fatty acids, Fatty acid - Free fatty acids, Fatty acid - pH, Fatty acid - Autoxidation and rancidity, Fatty acid - Sources

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Alkanes are both important raw materials of the chemical industry and the most important fuels of the world economy. The starting materials for the processing are always natural gas and crude oil. The latter is separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation and processed into many different products, for example gasoline. The different "fractions" of crude oil have different boiling points and can be isolated and separated quite easily: within the individual fra ...

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Alkane, Alkane - Isomerism, Alkane - Nomenclature of alkanes, Alkane - Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains, Alkane - Alkanes with branched carbon chains, Alkane - Trivial names, Alkane - Occurrence, Alkane - Purification and use, Alkane - Preparation, Alkane - Molecular geometry, Alkane - Bond lengths and bond angles, Alkane - Conformation, Alkane - Properties, Alkane - Physical properties, Alkane - Chemical properties, Alkane - Thermochemistry, Alkane - Spectroscopic properties, Alkane - Reactions, Alkane - Reactions with oxygen, Alkane - Reactions with halogens, Alkane - Cracking and reforming, Alkane - Other reactions, Alkane - Hazards, Alkane - Alkanes in nature, Alkane - Bacteria and archaea, Alkane - Fungi and plants, Alkane - Animals, Alkane - Ecological relations

Read more here: » Alkane: Encyclopedia II - Alkane - Purification and use

Although alkanes occur in nature in various way, they do not rank biologically among the essential materials. Cycloalkanes with 14 to 18 carbon atoms occur in musk, extracted from deer of the family Moschidae. All further information refers to acyclic alkanes. Alkane - Bacteria and archaea. Certain types of bacteria can metabolise alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are ...

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Alkane, Alkane - Isomerism, Alkane - Nomenclature of alkanes, Alkane - Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains, Alkane - Alkanes with branched carbon chains, Alkane - Trivial names, Alkane - Occurrence, Alkane - Purification and use, Alkane - Preparation, Alkane - Molecular geometry, Alkane - Bond lengths and bond angles, Alkane - Conformation, Alkane - Properties, Alkane - Physical properties, Alkane - Chemical properties, Alkane - Thermochemistry, Alkane - Spectroscopic properties, Alkane - Reactions, Alkane - Reactions with oxygen, Alkane - Reactions with halogens, Alkane - Cracking and reforming, Alkane - Other reactions, Alkane - Hazards, Alkane - Alkanes in nature, Alkane - Bacteria and archaea, Alkane - Fungi and plants, Alkane - Animals, Alkane - Ecological relations

Read more here: » Alkane: Encyclopedia II - Alkane - Alkanes in nature

Oseltamivir, otherwise known as Tamiflu, was widely used during the H5N1 avian influenza epidemic in Southeast Asia in 2005. In response to the epidemic, various governments – including those of the United Kingdom, Canada, United States and Australia – stockpiled quantities of oseltamivir in preparation for a possible pandemic. Though significant, the quantities stockpiled would not have been sufficient to pro ...

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Oseltamivir, Oseltamivir - Technical information, Oseltamivir - Indications and dosage, Oseltamivir - Side effects, Oseltamivir - Chemical synthesis, Oseltamivir - Resistance, Oseltamivir - Production shortage/shikimic acid, Oseltamivir - Other actions, Oseltamivir - Pandemic fears, Oseltamivir - U.S. Government policy and oseltamivir, Oseltamivir - Personal stockpiling of Tamiflu

Read more here: » Oseltamivir: Encyclopedia II - Oseltamivir - Pandemic fears