PhyloCode

Definition and meaning of PhyloCode:

PhyloCode - a proposed alternative to the Linnaean system of biological classification. The PhyloCode is based explicitly on phylogeny, the evolutionary history of a species or higher taxon. It would name and organize living things based on common ancestry and the branching of the evolutionary family tree. The Linneaean hierarchical system implies evolutionary relationships, but does not formally incorporate phylogeny. The PhyloCode would abandon Linnaean hierarchical ranks and recognize only species and clades (a group of organisms that share a particular common ancestor)

(Source: US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) )

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In biology, phylogenetics (Greek: phylon = tribe, race and genetikos = relative to birth, from genesis = birth) is the study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms (e.g., species, populations). Phylogenetics, also known as phylogenetic systematics, treats a species as a group of lineage-connected individuals over time. Phylogenetic taxonomy, which is an offshoot of, but not a logical consequence of, phylogenetic systematics, constitutes a means of classifying groups of organi ...

Read more here: » Phylogenetics: Encyclopedia - Phylogenetics

Unlike physics, biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by mathematics. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, genetics, homeostasis, and interactions. Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the gene ...

See also:

Biology, Biology - Principles of biology, Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the genetic code, Biology - Evolution: The central principle of biology, Biology - Diversity: The variety of living organisms, Biology - Continuity: The common descent of life, Biology - Homeostasis: Adapting to change, Biology - Interactions: Groups and environments, Biology - Scope of biology, Biology - Structure of life, Biology - Physiology of organisms, Biology - Diversity and evolution of organisms, Biology - Interactions of organisms, Biology - History of the word biology, Biology - History

Read more here: » Biology: Encyclopedia II - Biology - Principles of biology

In biology, binomial nomenclature is the formal method of naming species. As the word "binomial" suggests, the scientific name of a species is formed by the combination of two terms: the genus name and the species descriptor. Although the fine detail will differ, there are certain aspects which are universally adopted: Scientific names are usually printed in italics, such as Homo sapiens. When handwritten they should be underlined. The first term (genus name / generic name) is always capitali ...

Including:

• Binomial nomenclature - History
• Binomial nomenclature - Value of binomial nomenclature
• Binomial nomenclature - Nomenclature Codes
• Binomial nomenclature - Derivation of names
• Binomial nomenclature - Binomenal nomenclature

Read more here: » Binomial nomenclature: Encyclopedia - Binomial nomenclature

A clade is group of organisms which share a common ancestor and which includes all descendents of that ancestor. Taxonomy which requires all taxa to be clades is called cladistics. A clade may or may not conform to an existing taxon. A clade is thus a monophyletic group of organisms. The term evolutionary grade is sometimes used for groups of related organisms that don't include all decendents of their common ancestor. The PhyloCode is an attempt at a Code that will allow clades to get a formal name.

Scientific classification or biological classification is how biologists group and categorize extinct and living species of organisms. Modern classification has its roots in the system of Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have been revised since Linnaeus to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent. Molecular systematics, which uses genomic DNA analysis, has driven many recent revisions and is likely to continue to do so. Scientific class ...

Including:

• Scientific classification - Modern developments
• Scientific classification - Early systems
• Scientific classification - Linnaeus
• Scientific classification - Examples
• Scientific classification - Group suffixes

Read more here: » Scientific classification: Encyclopedia - Scientific classification

Cladistics (Greek: klados = branch) is a branch of biology that determines the evolutionary relationships between living things based on derived similarity. It is the most prominent of several phylogenetic systematics, which study the evolutionary relationships of living things. Cladistics is a method of rigorous analysis, using "shared derived properties" (synapomorphies: see below) of the organisms being studied. Cladistic analysis forms the basis for most modern systems of biological classification, which seek to grou ...

Including:

• Cladistics - Definitions
• Cladistics - Cladistic methods
• Cladistics - Cladistic classification

Read more here: » Cladistics: Encyclopedia - Cladistics

Typically, a cladistic analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question. Features may come in different versions (e.g. feather-color may be blue in one species but red in another). These features are collectively called characters, and specific versions are called character states. Thus, "red feathers" and "blue feathers" are two character states of the character "feather-color." After recording several character states, the researcher decides which ones were present befor ...

See also:

Cladistics, Cladistics - Definitions, Cladistics - Cladistic methods, Cladistics - Cladistic classification

Read more here: » Cladistics: Encyclopedia II - Cladistics - Cladistic methods

The taxonomy for humans is usually recognized as follows: Kingdom Animalia - along with all other animals Phylum Chordata - along with all other vertebrates and the invertebrate chordates Class Mammalia - along with all other mammals Order Primates - along with all other primates Family Hominidae - along with all other apes Subfamily Homininae - along with gorillas and chimps Tribe Hominini - along with chimps Subtribe Hominina - along with Australopithecus an ...

See also:

Incertae sedis, Incertae sedis - Examples, Incertae sedis - Reasons a Group Might be Considered Incertae Sedis, Incertae sedis - Not included in an analysis, Incertae sedis - Controversy, Incertae sedis - Stem taxa

Read more here: » Incertae sedis: Encyclopedia II - Incertae sedis - Examples

The starting point, that is the time from which these Codes are in effect (usually retroactively), varies from group to group, and sometimes from rank to rank. In botany the starting point will often be 1753, in zoology 1758. On the other hand bacteriology started anew, with a starting point in 1980. There are differences in the way Codes work as well. For example, the ICBN (the plant Code) forbids tauto ...

See also:

Nomenclature Codes, Nomenclature Codes - Differences between Codes, Nomenclature Codes - Other 'codes'

Read more here: » Nomenclature Codes: Encyclopedia II - Nomenclature Codes - Differences between Codes

The value of the binomial nomenclature system derives primarily from its economy, its widespread use, and the stability of names it generally favors: Every species can be unambiguously identified with just two words. The same name can be used all over the world, in all languages, avoiding difficulties of translation. Although such stability as exists is far from absolute, the procedures associated with establishing binomial nomenclature tend to favor stability. For example, when species are transferred between ...

See also:

Binomial nomenclature, Binomial nomenclature - History, Binomial nomenclature - Value of binomial nomenclature, Binomial nomenclature - Nomenclature Codes, Binomial nomenclature - Derivation of names, Binomial nomenclature - Binomenal nomenclature

Read more here: » Binomial nomenclature: Encyclopedia II - Binomial nomenclature - Value of binomial nomenclature

The earliest known system of classifying forms of life comes from the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who classified all living organisms know at that time as either a plant or an animal. He futher classified animals based on their means of transportation (air, land, or water). In 1172 Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who was a judge (Qadi) in Seville, translated and abridged Aristotle's book de Anima (On the Soul) into Arabic. His original commentary is now los ...

See also:

Scientific classification, Scientific classification - Modern developments, Scientific classification - Early systems, Scientific classification - Linnaeus, Scientific classification - Examples, Scientific classification - Group suffixes

Read more here: » Scientific classification: Encyclopedia II - Scientific classification - Early systems

Main articles: History of biology, History of medicine, History of genetics Major discoveries in biology include: Cell theory Germ theory of disease Genetics Evolution DNA ...

See also:

Biology, Biology - Principles of biology, Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the genetic code, Biology - Evolution: The central principle of biology, Biology - Diversity: The variety of living organisms, Biology - Continuity: The common descent of life, Biology - Homeostasis: Adapting to change, Biology - Interactions: Groups and environments, Biology - Scope of biology, Biology - Structure of life, Biology - Physiology of organisms, Biology - Diversity and evolution of organisms, Biology - Interactions of organisms, Biology - History of the word biology, Biology - History

Read more here: » Biology: Encyclopedia II - Biology - History

Main article: List of biology disciplines Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but as a number of clustered sub-disciplines. This article considers four broad groupings. The first group consists of those disciplines that study the basic structures of living systems: cells, genes etc.; the second group considers the operation of these structures at the level of tissues, organs, and bodies; the third group considers organisms and their histories; the final co ...

See also:

Biology, Biology - Principles of biology, Biology - Universality: Biochemistry cells and the genetic code, Biology - Evolution: The central principle of biology, Biology - Diversity: The variety of living organisms, Biology - Continuity: The common descent of life, Biology - Homeostasis: Adapting to change, Biology - Interactions: Groups and environments, Biology - Scope of biology, Biology - Structure of life, Biology - Physiology of organisms, Biology - Diversity and evolution of organisms, Biology - Interactions of organisms, Biology - History of the word biology, Biology - History

Read more here: » Biology: Encyclopedia II - Biology - Scope of biology

The usual classifications of five species follow: the fruit fly so familiar in genetics laboratories (Drosophila melanogaster), humans (Homo sapiens), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics (Pisum sativum), the fly agaric mushroom Amanita muscaria, and the bacterium Escherichia coli. The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well. Notes: Botanists and mycologists use systematic naming conventions for higher taxa, using the Latin ...

See also:

Scientific classification, Scientific classification - Modern developments, Scientific classification - Early systems, Scientific classification - Linnaeus, Scientific classification - Examples, Scientific classification - Group suffixes

Read more here: » Scientific classification: Encyclopedia II - Scientific classification - Examples

From the mid nineteenth century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became Nomenclature Codes governing the naming of animals (ICZN), plants (incl. Fungi, cyanobacteria) (ICBN), bacteria (ICNB) and viruses. These codes differ. For example, the ICBN, the plant Code does not allow tautonyms, whereas the ICZN, the animal Code does allow tautonymy. The starting points, the time from wh ...

See also:

Binomial nomenclature, Binomial nomenclature - History, Binomial nomenclature - Value of binomial nomenclature, Binomial nomenclature - Nomenclature Codes, Binomial nomenclature - Derivation of names, Binomial nomenclature - Binomenal nomenclature

Read more here: » Binomial nomenclature: Encyclopedia II - Binomial nomenclature - Nomenclature Codes

The genus name and species descriptor may come from any source whatsoever. Often they are Latin words, but they may also come from Ancient Greek, from a place, from a person (preferably a naturalist), a name from a local language, etc. In fact, taxonomists come up with specific descriptors from a variety of sources, including in-jokes and puns. However, names are always treated grammatically as if they were a Latin sentence. For this reason the name of a species is sometimes called its "Latin name," although this terminology is frowned upon ...

See also:

Binomial nomenclature, Binomial nomenclature - History, Binomial nomenclature - Value of binomial nomenclature, Binomial nomenclature - Nomenclature Codes, Binomial nomenclature - Derivation of names, Binomial nomenclature - Binomenal nomenclature

Read more here: » Binomial nomenclature: Encyclopedia II - Binomial nomenclature - Derivation of names

Whereas Linnaeus classified for ease of identification, it is now generally accepted that classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent. Since the 1960s a trend called cladistic taxonomy or cladism has emerged, arranging taxa in an evolutionary tree. If a taxon includes all the descendants of some ancestral form, it is called monophyletic, as opposed to paraphyletic. Other groups are called polyphyletic. A new formal code of nomenclature, the PhyloCode, is currently under development, intended to deal with clades rather than taxa. It is unclear, ...

See also:

Scientific classification, Scientific classification - Modern developments, Scientific classification - Early systems, Scientific classification - Linnaeus, Scientific classification - Examples, Scientific classification - Group suffixes

Read more here: » Scientific classification: Encyclopedia II - Scientific classification - Modern developments

Taxa above the genus level are often given names derived from the Latin (or Latinized) stem of the type genus, plus a standard suffix. The suffixes used to form these names depend on the kingdom, and sometimes the phylum and class, as set out in the table below. Notes The stem of a word may not be straightforward to deduce from the nominative form as it appears in the name of the genus. For example, Latin "homo" (human) has stem "homin-", thus Hominidae, not "Homidae". For animals, there are standard suffixes for taxa on ...

See also:

Scientific classification, Scientific classification - Modern developments, Scientific classification - Early systems, Scientific classification - Linnaeus, Scientific classification - Examples, Scientific classification - Group suffixes

Read more here: » Scientific classification: Encyclopedia II - Scientific classification - Group suffixes