Gibbs' scientific career can be divided into four phases. Up until 1879, he worked on the theory of thermodynamics. From 1880 to 1884, he worked on the field of vector analysis. From 1882 to 1889, he worked on optics and the electromagnetic theory of light. After 1889, he worked on statistical mechanics, laying a foundation and "providing a mathematical framework for quantum theory and for Maxwell's theories" [1]; he also produced classic textbooks on the matter. See also:

Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Death and afterwards, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Citations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

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Other, more complex types of phase diagrams can be constructed. For example, phase diagrams can involve substances that take on more than just three states of matter. Also, phase diagrams can use other variables in place of temperature and pressure. Phase diagrams with more than two dimensions can be constructed that show the effect of more than two variables on the phase of a substance. One type of phase diagram plots temperature against the relative concentrations of two substances in a binary mixture. Such a mixture can be e ...

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Phase diagram, Phase diagram - Pressure-temperature diagrams, Phase diagram - Other phase diagrams, Phase diagram - Common components of a phase diagram

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In thermodynamics, a phase is a region of space where matter lies in a given physical configuration, like for example of a liquid phase, or a solid phase, etc. Note that the phase space of thermodynamics, which is the parameter space in which one describes the phases of a system is also a phase space in the mathematical sense of the term, because it is the space of thermodynamic (macroscopic) parameters, like pressure and temperature. In statistical mechanics, a domain which focuses on predicting the thermodynamic ...

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Phase space, Phase space - Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics

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BPSK is the simplest form of PSK. It uses two phases which are separated by 180° and so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0° and 180°. This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes serious distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, however, only able to modulate at 1bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high data-rate applications. The bit error ...

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Phase-shift keying, Phase-shift keying - Introduction, Phase-shift keying - Ideal structure, Phase-shift keying - Transmitter, Phase-shift keying - Receiver, Phase-shift keying - Definitions, Phase-shift keying - Applications, Phase-shift keying - Binary Phase-shift Keying BPSK, Phase-shift keying - Implementation, Phase-shift keying - Quadrature Phase-shift Keying QPSK, Phase-shift keying - Implementation, Phase-shift keying - QPSK signal in the time domain, Phase-shift keying - Offset QPSK OQPSK, Phase-shift keying - π / 4–QPSK, Phase-shift keying - Higher-order PSK, Phase-shift keying - Differential Encoding, Phase-shift keying - Example: Differentially encoded BPSK, Phase-shift keying - Differential Phase-shift Keying DPSK, Phase-shift keying - Notes

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Lines of equilibrium or phase boundaries refer to the lines that demarcate where phase transitions occur. A triple point is, in a pressure-temperature phase diagram, the unique intersection of the lines of equilibrium between three states of matter, usually solid, liquid, and gas. For a phase diagram with temperature on the vertical axis, a solidus is a line below which the substance is stable in the solid state. A liquidus is a line above which the substance is stable in a liquid state. There may be a gap between the solidus and liquidus; with ...

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Phase diagram, Phase diagram - Pressure-temperature diagrams, Phase diagram - Other phase diagrams, Phase diagram - Common components of a phase diagram

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Onnes was born in Groningen, Netherlands. His father, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes, was the brickworks owner. His mother was Anna Gerdina Coers of Arnhem. In 1870, Onnes attended the University of Groningen. Onnes studied under Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff at the University of Heidelberg from 1871 to 1873. Onnes, again at Groningen, obtained his masters in 1878 and a doctorate in 1879. His thesis was "Nieuwe bewijzen voor de aswe ...

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Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Early years and professorship, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Superconductivity, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Death and afterwards, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Publications

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Onnes conducted (in 1911) electrical analysis of pure metals (mercury, tin and lead) at very low temperatures. Some, such as William Thomson, believed that electrons flowing through a conductor would come to a complete halt. Others, including Onnes, felt that a conductors electrical resistance would steadily decrease and drop to nil. At 4.2 kelvins the resistance was zero. Onnes stated that the "Mercury has passed into a new state, which on account of its extraordinary electrical properties may be called the superconductive state". On ...

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Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Early years and professorship, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Superconductivity, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Death and afterwards, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Publications

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He died in Leiden. The instruments Onnes devised for his experiments can still be seen at the Boerhaave museum in Leiden. His student and successor as director of the lab Willem Hendrik Keesom was the first person who was able to solidify helium, in 1926. The Kamerlingh Onnes crater on the Moon was named after him by the IAU. ...

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Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Early years and professorship, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Superconductivity, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Death and afterwards, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Publications

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The phases of matter are solid, liquid, gas. At a temperature of 0.01 degree Celsius and pressure of 611.73 pascals, water exists in all three phases at the same time, and that temperature-pressure pair is called the triple point for that reason. Gibbs' rule related the number of phases to the number of degrees of freedom in the thermodynamic system, modeling it on the Euler characteristic. For instance, a balloon filled with carbon dioxide has one component and one phase, and therefore has only two degrees of freedom - in this case t ...

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Gibbs' phase rule, Gibbs' phase rule - Examples, Gibbs' phase rule - Relation to Euler's formula

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As the universe expanded and cooled, symmetries in the laws of physics began breaking down in regions that spread at the speed of light; topological defects occur where different regions came into contact with each other. The matter in these defects is in the original symmetric phase, which persists after a phase transition to the new asymmetric new phase is completed. Various different types of topological defects are possible with the type of defect formed being determined by the symmetry properties of the matter and the nature of t ...

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Topological defect, Topological defect - Explanation, Topological defect - External link

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An interferometer works on the principle that two waves that coincide with the same phase will amplify each other while two waves that have opposite phases will cancel each other out. In the beginning, most interferometers used white light sources (e.g., Young's double slit experiment of 1805). Nowadays researchers often use monochromatic light sources like lasers, and even the wave character of matter can be exploited to build interferometers. One of the first examples of matter interferometers were electron interferometers, later fo ...

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Interferometry, Interferometry - Interferometer, Interferometry - Related lists

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Because meiosis is a "one-way" process, it cannot be said to engage in a cell cycle that mitosis does. However, the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle. Interphase is divided into three phases: Growth 1 (G1) phase: Characterized by increasing cell size from accelerated manufacture of organelles, proteins, and other cellular matter. Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated. Growth 2 (G2) phase: ...

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Meiosis, Meiosis - Occurrence of meiosis in eukaryotic life cycles, Meiosis - Chromosome segregation in meiosis, Meiosis - Process, Meiosis - Meiosis I, Meiosis - Meiosis II, Meiosis - Significance of meiosis, Meiosis - Nondisjunction, Meiosis - Meiosis in humans

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Because meiosis is a "one-way" process, it cannot be said to engage in a cell cycle that mitosis does. However, the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle. Interphase is divided into three phases: Growth 1 (G1) phase: Characterized by increasing cell size from accelerated manufacture of organelles, proteins, and other cellular matter. Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated. Growth 2 (G2) phase: ...

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Meiosis, Meiosis - History, Meiosis - Occurrence of meiosis in eukaryotic life cycles, Meiosis - Chromosome segregation in meiosis, Meiosis - Process, Meiosis - Meiosis I, Meiosis - Meiosis II, Meiosis - Significance of meiosis, Meiosis - Nondisjunction, Meiosis - Meiosis in humans

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Shadowcat possesses the ability to "phase" or literally pass through solid matter by passing her atoms through the spaces between the atoms of the object through which she is moving. Utilizing her phasing ability, she can also walk on air. While phasing, she is intangible and thus invulnerable to physical attacks and telepaths have a hard time reaching her mind in phased form. Her phasing powers also disrupt any electronic equipment she passes through. For some time after she discovered her powers, she was only able to phase herself and her clothes along with her. However, she quickly l ...

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Shadowcat, Shadowcat - Character biography, Shadowcat - Powers and abilities, Shadowcat - The real-life Kitty Pryde, Shadowcat - Other Shadowcats, Shadowcat - Cat, Shadowcat - Ultimate Shadowcat, Shadowcat - Appearances in other media

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Shadowcat possesses the ability to "phase" or literally pass through solid matter by passing her atoms through the spaces between the atoms of the object through which she is moving. Utilizing her phasing ability, she can also walk on air. While phasing, she is intangible and thus invulnerable to physical attacks and telepaths have a hard time reaching her mind in phased form. Her phasing powers also disrupt any electronic equipment she passes through. For some time after she discovered her powers, she was only able to phase herself and her ...

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Shadowcat, Shadowcat - Character biography, Shadowcat - Powers and abilities, Shadowcat - The real-life Kitty Pryde, Shadowcat - Other Shadowcats, Shadowcat - Cat, Shadowcat - Ultimate Shadowcat, Shadowcat - Appearances in other media

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The term neutronium is used in popular literature to refer to the material present in the cores of neutron stars (stars which are too massive to be supported by electron degeneracy pressure and which collapse into a denser phase of matter). This term is very rarely used in scientific literature, for two reasons: There is no universally agreed-upon definition for the term "neutronium". There is very considerable uncertainty over the composition of the material in the cores of neutron stars (it could be neutron-degenerate matter, strange matter, quar ...

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Neutronium, Neutronium - Neutronium and neutron stars, Neutronium - Neutronium and the periodic table, Neutronium - Neutronium in fiction

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"The quantum world is a world of waves, not particles. So we have to think of electron waves and proton waves and so on. Matter is 'incoherent' when all its waves have a different wavelength, implying a different momentum. On the other hand, if you take a pure quantum system - the electrons in a superconducting magnet, or the atoms in a laser - they are all in phase with one another, and they demonstrate the wave nature of matter on a large scale. Then you can see quite visibly what matter is down at its heart." (Carver Mead Interview, Ame ...

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Carver Mead, Carver Mead - Quotes, Carver Mead - Awards

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A boiling pot of water, at sea level and normal atmospheric pressure, will always be at 100 °C no matter how much heat is added. The extra heat changes the phase of the water from liquid into water vapor. The heat added to change the phase of a substance in this way is said to be "hidden," and thus it is called latent heat (from a Latin word for hidden). Latent heat is heat per unit mass necessary to change the state of a given substance. Thus: See also:

Heat, Heat - Notation, Heat - Changes of temperature, Heat - Changes of phase, Heat - Heat transfer mechanisms, Heat - Conduction, Heat - Convection, Heat - Radiation, Heat - Heat transfer features, Heat - Heat dissipation

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Helium - Abundance. Helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe after hydrogen and constitutes 23% of all elemental matter measured by mass even though there are 8 times as many hydrogen atoms as helium ('elemental matter' does not include dark matter or dark energy, which together may account for 96% of the Universe). It is concentrated in stars, where it is formed from hydrogen by the nuclear fusion of the proton-proton chain reaction and CNO cycle. This so-called 'hydrogen burning' process ...

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Helium, Helium - Notable characteristics, Helium - Gas and plasma phases, Helium - Solid and liquid phases, Helium - Electron energy levels, Helium - Applications, Helium - History, Helium - Discoveries, Helium - Production and use, Helium - Occurrence and production, Helium - Abundance, Helium - Production, Helium - Isotopes, Helium - Precautions

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Among the honors given to Gibbs' memory after his death, Yale University created the "J. Willard Gibbs Professorship in Theoretical Chemistry". Held during most of his career at Yale by eventual Nobel Prize laureate Lars Onsager, it was an extremely appropriate title for Onsager, who was primarily involved, like Gibbs, in the application of new mathematical ideas to problems in physical chemistry, especially statistical mechanics. Since, in the mid-1800s, American colleges had little interest in the sciences and emphasized clas ...

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Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Death and afterwards, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Citations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

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Recognition was slow in coming, in good part because Gibbs published mainly in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences, a journal, edited by his librarian brother-in-law, little read in the USA and less so in Europe. At first, only a few European theoretical physicists and chemists, such as the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, paid any attention to his work. Only when Gibbs's papers were translated into German (then the leading language for chemistry) by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1892, and into French by Henri Louis le Cha ...

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Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Quotations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Cited material, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

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