Pertinax

Religion in Roman Britain consisted originally of pagan worship. A common element was the conflation of Roman gods and local Iron Age deities such as Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham. The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain northern European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record but the differences in the votive offerings made at Bath before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the emperor himself is wide ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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The usurpation mania of the third century had profound effects in the bureaucratic and military organization of the Empire. Fear of potential rivals was to be the main driving force for the evolution of the Roman world from the early to the late Empire. One of the most striking changes was the division and multiplication of the Roman provinces. Provinces were ruled by a governor, either a proconsul, propraetor or procurator, and were ascribed a certain number of legions, according to the degree of pacification they required. This mean ...

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General consensus is that Claudius was murdered by poison — possibly contained in mushrooms — on October 13, 54. There are various accounts, some of which implicate Halotus, his taster, and some Xenophon, his doctor[33]. Some say he died immediately, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again. All implicate his wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Now that Britannicus was approaching the age of majority, there was no need for Nero to be heir in case of Claudius' death. There was now no ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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For the first twenty years, the Roman rule was oppressive, and this treatment led Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, to revolt. The Trinovantes and Catuvellauni joined, and the alliance assaulted the Roman colony at Camulodunum, looting and burning the town as well as slaying every man, woman and child they found. The governor Suetonius Paullinus, upon reaching London from his campaigning in the western part of the province, found the town indefensible with the few troops he had. As a result, Paullinus was forced to abandon the city and took only ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He reinstituted old observances and archaic language. Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the c ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the princeps became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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Claudius married four times. His first marriage, to Plautia Urgulanilla occured after two failed betrothals, one of which ended with the bride's death. Urgulanilla was a relation of Livia's confidant Urgulania. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Unfortunately, Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to the daughter of Sejanus. Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorc ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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General consensus is that Claudius was murdered by poison — possibly contained in mushrooms — on October 13th, 54. There are various accounts, some of which implicate Halotus, his taster, and some Xenophon, his doctor[32]. Some say he died immediately, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again. All implicate his wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Now that Britannicus was approaching the age of majority, there was no need for Nero to be ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Arnaldo Momigliano[34] states that during the reign of Tiberius — which covers the peak Claudius' literary career — it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major work ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the emperor sat amongst the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as Tribune. He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at the beginning his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the imperial province ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula, and the Anio Novus. These entered the city in 52 and met at the famous Porta Maggiore. He also restored a third, the Aqua Virgo. He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany — both begun by his father, Drusu ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in detail[1]. His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when excited. The Stoic Seneca states in his Apocolocyntosis that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well^{See also:}

Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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On January 24, 41, Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based conspiracy (including praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several Senators). There is no evidence that Claudius had direct hand in either the assassination , although he probably knew about the plot — particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before the event. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the imperial family. In the chaos following the ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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Under Claudius, the empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Mauretania, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Judea were annexed during his term. The most important conquest was that of Britannia. In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with 4 legions to Britain after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth — particularly mines and slaves. It was also a safe haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be le ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgements were variable and sometimes did not follow the law[18]. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law re ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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The emperor Claudius was the protagonist of the books I, Claudius (1934) and Claudius the God (1935) by Robert Graves. The books are written from a first-person perspective, giving the impression of having been written by Claudius himself as his autobiography. Graves's fictive artifice that they were recently discovered translations of writings by Claudius extended even to the point of Claudius relating a visit to an oracle who predicted their discovery "nineteen hundred year or near" later. Graves's two books were the basis fo ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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In 30 BC, following the death of Cleopatra, Egypt became part of the Roman Empire as the province Aegyptus, governed by a prefect selected by the Emperor from the Equestrian and not a governor from the Senatorial order, to prevent interference by the Roman Senate. The main Roman interest in Egypt was always the reliable delivery of grain to the city of Rome. To this end the Roman administration made no change to the Ptolemaic system of government, although Romans replaced Greeks in the highest offices. But Greeks continued to staff most of t ...

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History of Greek and Roman Egypt, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Ptolemaic Egypt, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Ptolemy I, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Ptolemy II, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Ptolemy III, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - The decline of the Ptolemies, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - The later Ptolemies, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Roman Egypt, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Roman rule in Egypt, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Christian Egypt, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Byzantine Egypt, History of Greek and Roman Egypt - Persian and Arab Conquests

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The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the throne emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britain, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant to the purple. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus' support against Pescennius N ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate but those like Britain that required permanent garrisons of troops were placed under the Emperor's control. On the ground however imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were former senators who had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military but numerous other tasks were also his responsibil ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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Constantius Chlorus returned to Britain in 306, aiming to invade northern Britain. The province's defences had been rebuilt in the preceding years and, although his health was poor, Constantius wished to penetrate far into enemy territory and win a further victory. Little is known of his campaigns and there is little archaeological evidence for them. From fragmentary historical sources it seems he reached the far north of Britain and won a great battle in early ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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A number of important settlements were founded by the Romans, during their occupation of Britain. Many of which still survive. Cities and towns which have Roman origins include: (with their Latin names in brackets) Alcester - (Aluana) Bath - (Aquae Sulis) Caerleon - (Isca Silurum) Caerwent - (Venta Silurum) Canterbury - (Durovernum) Carmarthen - (Moridunum) Colchester - (Camulodonum) Chichester - (Noviomagus< ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's tin exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from Iberia. Gold, iron, lead, silver, jet, marble and pearls however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool, corn and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market and imports were often of exotic Continental items such as fine pottery, oliv ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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