Pertinax

General consensus is that Claudius was murdered by poison — possibly contained in mushrooms — on October 13th, 54. There are various accounts, some of which implicate Halotus, his taster, and some Xenophon, his doctor[32]. Some say he died immediately, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again. All implicate his wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Now that Britannicus was approaching the age of majority, there was no need for Nero to be ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death, deification, and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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In March 193, the Imperial dignity was quite literally and quite openly auctioned off by the mutinous Praetorian Guard, with Titus Flavius Sulpicianus (father-in-law of the slain Emperor) and Marcus Didius Julianus bidding for the Guard's support for the purple. Pertinax ("Imp. Caesar P. Helvius Pertinax Aug."; b. P. Helvius Pertinax), 193 Didius Julianus ("Imp. Caesar M. Didius Severus Iulianus Aug."; b. M. Didius Iulianus), 193 Commodus's murder on December 31, 192 was immediately followed the next day b ...

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Roman Emperor Principate, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - From Domitian to Severus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Macrinus and Diadumenianus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships

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The emperor Claudius was the protagonist of the books I, Claudius (1934) and Claudius the God (1935) by Robert Graves, which were both written in the first-person to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius' autobiography. Graves employed fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings. To this end I, Claudius even includes a fictional account of his visit to an oracle, who predicted that the document would be r ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

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The Nervan-Antonine dynasty was a largely artificial one, chiefly built out more of adoption than blood relations, as in the Julio-Claudian or Flavian dynasties (the first Emperor of this dynasty was an elderly, childless man, from the noble Cocceii Nervae). The Nervan-Antonine dynasty produced the famous "Five Good Emperors", and the first non-Italian Roman Emperors, the Spaniards Trajanus and Hadrianus. The Nervan-Antonine dynasty also marks the first time that an Emperor was depicted with a beard (Emperor Hadrianus), and one of the first ...

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Roman Emperor Principate, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - From Domitian to Severus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Macrinus and Diadumenianus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships

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During their occupation of Britain, the Romans built an extensive network of roads, many of which are still in use today. The Romans also built water and sewage systems. The prestige of the empire influenced Britons' views of themselves for generations to come. Britain is also noteworthy as having the largest European region of the former Roman Empire which currently speaks neither (as a majority language): A Romance language (for example, Romania, where territory was under Roman control about half as long as Brita ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. The army rebelled and, after elevating two disappointing usurpers, chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become Emperor in 407. He soon crossed to Gaul with an army, to be defeated by Theodosius I; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, nor whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Briton ...

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Roman Britain, Roman Britain - Early Roman contacts, Roman Britain - The Roman invasion, Roman Britain - Roman rule is established, Roman Britain - Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland, Roman Britain - Trade and industry, Roman Britain - The third century, Roman Britain - Government of Britannia, Roman Britain - The fourth century, Roman Britain - Town and country, Roman Britain - The end of Roman rule, Roman Britain - Religion, Roman Britain - Sub-Roman Britain, Roman Britain - The legacy

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Holes are drilled with tiny carbide drill bits or by lasers. Because lasers produce an inferior surface finish inside the hole, their use is generally restricted to making tiny holes where bit breakage and wear would be a serious problem; these holes are called micro vias. The drilling is performed by drilling machines with computerized placement using a "drill tape" or "drill file." A drill file is a computer file describing the location and sizes of all drilled holes. These files are also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) fi ...

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Printed circuit board, Printed circuit board - General characteristics, Printed circuit board - History, Printed circuit board - Design, Printed circuit board - Substrates, Printed circuit board - Manufacture and population of conventional PCBs, Printed circuit board - Protection and packaging, Printed circuit board - 'Cordwood' construction, Printed circuit board - Surface-mount technology

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The year 69 is often called the "Year of the Four Emperors" because it saw four usurpers successively claim the purple. The fourth Emperor is listed in the next section due to dynastic considerations. Galba ("Ser. Galba Imp. Caesar Aug."; b. Ser. Sulpicius Galba), 68 – 69 Otho ("Imp. M. Otho Caesar Aug."; b. M. Salvius Otho), 69 Vitellius ("A. Vitellius Germ. Imp. Aug."; b. A. Vitellius), 69 Nero committed suicide on June 9, 68, to escape rebellious soldiers loyal to the disloyal Galba, g ...

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Roman Emperor Principate, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - From Domitian to Severus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Macrinus and Diadumenianus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships

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The Flavian dynasty was composed of the Flavii Vespasiani, a middle-class family of plebeian stock. A relatively short-lived dynasty of 30 years, the Flavians confirmed the use of "Caesar" to confirm the hereditary nature of the Imperial dignity (Vespasian gave both his sons this rank, and is said to have informed the Senate that one of his sons would succeed him or no one would). Domitian made himself extremely unpopular by his autocratic manner, which was a departure from the traditional fiction that the Empero ...

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Roman Emperor Principate, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - From Domitian to Severus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Macrinus and Diadumenianus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships

Read more here: » Roman Emperor Principate: Encyclopedia II - Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty

The short-lived Severan dynasty came into the purple primarily not by vote of the Senate like the Julio-Claudii but rather by the point of the sword like the Flavii. The founder of the dynasty, Lucius Septimius Severus, was descended from a provincial family from North Africa and is reputed to have kept his African accent until his death. To help bolster his hold on power, Septimius Severus identified himself with the cause of the late Pertinax (and incorporated this into his name), and was called by some "the Punic Sulla", a slur simultaneo ...

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Roman Emperor Principate, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - From Domitian to Severus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Macrinus and Diadumenianus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships

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Macrinus came from an equestrian family; Dio Cassius writes that he was a Moor from Caesarea. Note that he did not style himself "Caesar", but did add "Severus" to his name and inserted Pius Felix before the title "Augustus". He raised his son Diadumenianus to be co-Emperor with him. Macrinus ("Imp. M. Opellius Severus Macrinus P.F. Augustus"; b. M. Opellius Macrinus), 217 – 218 Diadumenianus ("Imp. Caesar M. Opellius Antoninus Dia ...

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Roman Emperor Principate, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - From Domitian to Severus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Macrinus and Diadumenianus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships

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On January 24, 41, Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based conspiracy (including Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several Senators). There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although he probably knew about the plot — particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before the event. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the imperial family. In the chaos following the murde ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

Read more here: » Claudius: Encyclopedia II - Claudius - Accession as emperor

The inventor of the printed circuit was probably the Austrian engineer Paul Eisler (1907–1995) who, while working in England, made one circa 1936 as part of a radio set. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make rugged radios for use in World War II. After the war, in 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s. Before printed circuits, point-to-point construction was used. For prototypes, or small ...

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Printed circuit board, Printed circuit board - General characteristics, Printed circuit board - History, Printed circuit board - Design, Printed circuit board - Substrates, Printed circuit board - Manufacture and population of conventional PCBs, Printed circuit board - Protection and packaging, Printed circuit board - 'Cordwood' construction, Printed circuit board - Surface-mount technology

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Under Claudius, the empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Mauretania, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Judea were annexed during his term. The most important conquest was that of Britannia. In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth — particularly mines and slaves. It was also a safe haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

Read more here: » Claudius: Encyclopedia II - Claudius - Expansion of the empire

Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgements were variable and sometimes did not follow the law[18]. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while t ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

Read more here: » Claudius: Encyclopedia II - Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs

Claudius' love life was unusual for an upper-class Roman of his day. As Edward Gibbon mentions, of the first fifteen emperors, "Claudius was the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct" - the implication being that he was the only one not to take men or boys as lovers. Gibbons based this on Suetonius' factual statement that "He had a great passion for women, but had no interest in men."[25] Suetonius and the other ancient authors actually used this against Claudius. They accused him of being dominated by these same women ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

Read more here: » Claudius: Encyclopedia II - Claudius - Marriages and personal life

The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in detail[1]. His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when excited. The Stoic Seneca states in his Apocolocyntosis that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well[2]. However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when c ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

Read more here: » Claudius: Encyclopedia II - Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality

Usually an electronics or electrical engineer designs the circuit, and a layout specialist designs the PCB. PCB design is a specialized skill. There are numerous techniques and standards used to design a PCB that is easy to manufacture and yet small and inexpensive. Most PCBs have between one and sixteen conductive layers laminated (glued) together. Layers may be connected together through drilled holes called vias. Either the holes are electroplated or small rivets are inserted. High-density PCBs may have blind vias, which are visible only on one surface, or buried vias, which are visible on neither.

Printed circuit board, Printed circuit board - General characteristics, Printed circuit board - History, Printed circuit board - Design, Printed circuit board - Substrates, Printed circuit board - Manufacture and population of conventional PCBs, Printed circuit board - Protection and packaging, Printed circuit board - 'Cordwood' construction, Printed circuit board - Surface-mount technology

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The Severi, in addition to being the second dynasty d'épée, are also the first Roman dynasty to have been restored to the purple. The restoration, however, brought with it a decidedly bizarre character: the first of the restored Severan Emperors, a Syrian historically known as "Elagabalus" (also seen less correctly as "Heliogabalus") was already the hereditary high priest of an Oriental sun god, Elagabal. The restored Severi were also well-known for the autocratic power exercised by three Syrian princesses as the éminences grise ...

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Roman Emperor Principate, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Julio-Claudian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Year of the Four Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Flavian Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Nervan-Antonine Emperors, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - From Domitian to Severus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships, Roman Emperor Principate - Macrinus and Diadumenianus, Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored, Roman Emperor Principate - Dynastic Relationships

Read more here: » Roman Emperor Principate: Encyclopedia II - Roman Emperor Principate - Severan Dynasty Restored

Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Arnaldo Momigliano[35] states that during the reign of Tiberius — which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career — it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included an Etruscan history and eight vol ...

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Claudius, Claudius - Claudius' affliction and personality, Claudius - Family and early life, Claudius - Accession as emperor, Claudius - Expansion of the empire, Claudius - Judicial and legislative affairs, Claudius - Public works, Claudius - Claudius and the Senate, Claudius - The Secretariat and centralization of powers, Claudius - Religious reforms and games, Claudius - Marriages and personal life, Claudius - Death deification and reputation, Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact, Claudius - Claudius in fiction, Claudius - Footnotes

Read more here: » Claudius: Encyclopedia II - Claudius - Scholarly works and their impact

Low-end consumer grade PCB substrates frequently are made of paper impregnated with phenolic resin, sometimes branded "Pertinax". They carry designations such as XXXP, XXXPC, and FR-2. The material is inexpensive, easy to machine by drilling, shearing and cold punching, and causes less tool wear than glass fiber reinforced substrates. The letters "FR" in the designation indicate Flame Resistance. High-end consumer and industrial circuit board substrates are typically made of a material designated FR-4. This consists of a woven fibergl ...

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Printed circuit board, Printed circuit board - General characteristics, Printed circuit board - History, Printed circuit board - Design, Printed circuit board - Substrates, Printed circuit board - Manufacture and population of conventional PCBs, Printed circuit board - Protection and packaging, Printed circuit board - 'Cordwood' construction, Printed circuit board - Surface-mount technology

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