The Younger Dryas stadial, named after the alpine / tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala, and also referred to as the Big Freeze [1], was a brief (approximately 1300 +/- 70year [1]) cold climate period following the Bölling/Allerød interstadial at the end of the Pleistocene, and preceding the Preboreal of the early Holocene. In Ireland, the period has been known as the Nahanagan Stadial, while in the U ...

Including:

• Younger Dryas - Abrupt climate change
• Younger Dryas - Was the Younger Dryas global?
• Younger Dryas - Causes of the Younger Dryas
• Younger Dryas - The end of the Younger Dryas
• Younger Dryas - The Younger Dryas and the beginning of agriculture

Read more here: » Younger Dryas: Encyclopedia - Younger Dryas

Stonehenge is a Neolithic and Bronze Age monument located near Amesbury in the English county of Wiltshire, about 8 miles (13 km) northwest of Salisbury. It is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones, known as megaliths. There is some debate about the age of the stone circle, but most archaeologists think that it was mainly constructed between 2500 BC and 2000 BC. The older circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute perhaps the earliest phase o ...

Including:

• Stonehenge - Etymology
• Stonehenge - Development of Stonehenge
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 1
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 2
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3i
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3ii
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iii
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iv
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3v
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3vi
• Stonehenge - Theories about Stonehenge
• Stonehenge - Early interpretations
• Stonehenge - Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge
• Stonehenge - The bluestones
• Stonehenge - Stonehenge as part of a ritual landscape
• Stonehenge - Construction techniques and design
• Stonehenge - Alternative views
• Stonehenge - Excavations at Stonehenge
• Stonehenge - Myths and legends
• Stonehenge - Recent history
• Stonehenge - Laser scanning the Bronze Age dagger and axes at Stonehenge
• Stonehenge - Replicas and derivative names

Read more here: » Stonehenge: Encyclopedia - Stonehenge

Weathering is the process of decomposition and/or disintegration of rocks, soils and their minerals through natural, chemical, and biological processes that is, in place. It is not to be confused with erosion, which is the movement of rocks and/or weathering products by water, wind, ice or gravity. The breakdown products, after chemical weathering of rock and sediment minerals and the leaching out of the more soluble parts, when combined with decaying organic material, is called soil. The mineral content of the soil is determin ...

Including:

• Weathering - Mechanical Physical Weathering
• Weathering - Exfoliation
• Weathering - Freeze-thaw
• Weathering - Pressure release
• Weathering - Salt-crystal growth
• Weathering - Organic Activity
• Weathering - Abrasion
• Weathering - Chemical Weathering
• Weathering - Carbonation-solution
• Weathering - Hydration
• Weathering - Hydrolysis
• Weathering - Oxidation
• Weathering - Acids rain and plants

Read more here: » Weathering: Encyclopedia - Weathering

Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (strip mining). It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock. It is composed primarily of carbon along with assorted other elements, including sulfur. Often associated with the Industrial Revolution, coal remains an enormously important fuel and is the largest single source of electricity world-wide. In the United States, for example, the burning of coal generates 50% of the electricity consumed. Coal - Etymol ...

Including:

• Coal - Etymology and folklore
• Coal - Composition
• Coal - Creation
• Coal - Types of coal
• Coal - Uses
• Coal - Coal as fuel
• Coal - Coking and use of coke
• Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning
• Coal - Coal fires
• Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia - Coal

A Lake is a body of water surrounded by land. The majority of lakes are fresh water, and most lie in the northern hemisphere at higher latitudes. Large lakes are sometimes referred to as "inland seas" and small seas are sometimes referred to as lakes. The term lake is also used to describe a feature such as Lake Eyre, which is dry most of the time but becomes filled under seasonal conditions of heavy rainfall. Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for hydro-electric power supply, recreation (swim ...

Including:

• Lake - Origin of natural lakes
• Lake - Characteristics
• Lake - Types of lakes
• Lake - Artificial lakes
• Lake - Abiotic and biotic limnology
• Lake - How lakes disappear
• Lake - Extraterrestrial lakes
• Lake - Notable lakes

Read more here: » Lake: Encyclopedia - Lake

Although the Younger Dryas had the greatest effect in Europe, it was noted throughout the world including: Replacement of forest in Scandinavia with glacial tundra (which is the habitat of the plant Dryas octopetala). Glaciation or increased snow in mountain ranges around the world. More dust in the atmosphere, originating from deserts in Asia. Drought in the Levant, perhaps motivating the Natufian culture to invent agriculture. The Huelmo/Mascardi Cold Reversal in the Southern Hemisphere began sligh ...

See also:

Younger Dryas, Younger Dryas - Abrupt climate change, Younger Dryas - Was the Younger Dryas global?, Younger Dryas - Causes of the Younger Dryas, Younger Dryas - The end of the Younger Dryas, Younger Dryas - The Younger Dryas and the beginning of agriculture

Read more here: » Younger Dryas: Encyclopedia II - Younger Dryas - Was the Younger Dryas global?

A151 road - The Western End.. Having for some time, extended its influence by diplomacy and trade5, The Roman Empire began to take control in Britain from the year 43. An important part of the means of control was the building of soundly-built roads, running directly between key places(6). This led the engineers to overcome all but the greatest obstacles rather than going round them. One result of this was that they built roads on soils which others would ...

See also:

A151 road, A151 road - The British Road Numbering System, A151 road - The A151: Summary, A151 road - Turnpike roads, A151 road - Toll gates, A151 road - The Condition of the turnpike roads, A151 road - The Terrain, A151 road - Description, A151 road - The Western End., A151 road - Corby Glen, A151 road - Edenham, A151 road - Bourne, A151 road - Pinchbeck, A151 road - In the Townlands, A151 road - Footnotes

Read more here: » A151 road: Encyclopedia II - A151 road - Description

Mechanical weathering is the cause of the disintegration of rocks or wood. Most of the times it produces smaller angular fragments (like scree) as compared to chemical weathering. However, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. For example, cracks exploited by mechanical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action. Furthermore, the chemical action at minerals in cracks can aid the disintegration pr ...

See also:

Weathering, Weathering - Mechanical Physical Weathering, Weathering - Exfoliation, Weathering - Freeze-thaw, Weathering - Pressure release, Weathering - Salt-crystal growth, Weathering - Organic Activity, Weathering - Abrasion, Weathering - Chemical Weathering, Weathering - Carbonation-solution, Weathering - Hydration, Weathering - Hydrolysis, Weathering - Oxidation, Weathering - Acids rain and plants

Read more here: » Weathering: Encyclopedia II - Weathering - Mechanical Physical Weathering

The Stonehenge complex was built in several construction phases spanning 2,000 years, although there is evidence for activity both before and afterwards on the site. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity at Stonehenge is not a simple task; it is complicated by poorly-kept early excavation records, surprisingly few accurate scientific dates and the disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing. The modern phasing most generally agreed by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mention ...

See also:

Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Etymology, Stonehenge - Development of Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Before the monument, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 1, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 2, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3i, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3ii, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iii, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iv, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3v, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3vi, Stonehenge - After the monument, Stonehenge - Theories about Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Early interpretations, Stonehenge - Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge, Stonehenge - The bluestones, Stonehenge - Stonehenge as part of a ritual landscape, Stonehenge - Construction techniques and design, Stonehenge - Alternative views, Stonehenge - Excavations at Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Myths and legends, Stonehenge - Recent history, Stonehenge - Laser scanning the Bronze Age dagger and axes at Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Replicas and derivative names

Read more here: » Stonehenge: Encyclopedia II - Stonehenge - Development of Stonehenge

Coal - Coal as fuel. See also Clean coal Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce heat through combustion. World coal consumption is about 5,800 million short tons (5.3 petagrams) annually, of which about 75% is used for electricity production. The region including China and India uses about 1,700 million short tons (1.5 Pg) annually, forecast to exceed 3,000 million short tons (2.7 Pg) in 2025. ^{See also:}

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia II - Coal - Uses

The most distinctive feature of the headwaters of the Little Ouse and the Waveney is the valley in which they flow; the Little Ouse westwards and the Waveney, eastwards. It has a broad, fenny bottom, lies at an altitude of up to 26 metres and both rivers rise in the fen alongside the B1113 road, between South Lopham and Redgrave. (See map). The explanation of this oddity is that the valley was formed, not by these rivers but by water spilling from Lake Fenland. This was a periglacial lake of the Devensian glacial, fifteen or twenty thousand ...

See also:

River Little Ouse, River Little Ouse - Its origin, River Little Ouse - Flood precautions, River Little Ouse - Footnote

Read more here: » River Little Ouse: Encyclopedia II - River Little Ouse - Its origin

The Nennius text, Historia Britonum, tells us that Arthur, the war leader of the Britons fought his first battle against the Anglo-Saxons the mouth of the River Glein [sic]. People have speculated about the battle's placement in several places, in Northumberland for example. However, the history of the Lincolnshire site fits the text well. This aerial photo shows the River Glen at Guthram, halfway between Twenty and West Pinchbeck. To the south, the Roman road across the fen lies hidden, buried in Baston Fen and Pichbeck Common ...

See also:

River Glen Lincolnshire, River Glen Lincolnshire - Naming, River Glen Lincolnshire - Geography, River Glen Lincolnshire - History, River Glen Lincolnshire - Reference

Read more here: » River Glen Lincolnshire: Encyclopedia II - River Glen Lincolnshire - History

The change in level of a lake is controlled by the difference between the sources of inflow and outflow, compared to the total volume of the lake. The significant input sources are precipitation onto the lake; runoff carried by streams and channels from the lake's catchment area; groundwater channels and aquifers, and man-made sources from outside the catchment area. Output sources are evaporation from the lake; surface and groundwater flows, and any extraction of lake water by humans. As climate conditions and human water requirements vary, these wil ...

See also:

Lake, Lake - Origin of natural lakes, Lake - Characteristics, Lake - Types of lakes, Lake - Artificial lakes, Lake - Abiotic and biotic limnology, Lake - How lakes disappear, Lake - Extraterrestrial lakes, Lake - Notable lakes

Read more here: » Lake: Encyclopedia II - Lake - Characteristics

Mechanical weathering is the cause of the disintegration of rocks or, wood. Most of the times it produces smaller angular fragments (like scree,) as compared to chemical weathering. However, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. For example, cracks exploited by mechanical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action. Furthermore, the chemical action at minerals in cracks can aid the disintegration pr ...

See also:

Weathering, Weathering - Mechanical Physical Weathering, Weathering - Exfoliation, Weathering - Freeze-thaw, Weathering - Pressure release, Weathering - Salt-crystal growth, Weathering - Organic Activity, Weathering - Abrasion, Weathering - Chemical Weathering, Weathering - Carbonation-solution, Weathering - Hydration, Weathering - Hydrolysis, Weathering - Oxidation, Weathering - Acids rain and plants

Read more here: » Weathering: Encyclopedia II - Weathering - Mechanical Physical Weathering

It has been estimated that, as of 1996, there is around one exagram (1 × 1015 kg) of total coal reserves economically accessible using current mining technology, approximately half of it being hard coal. The energy value of all the world's coal is well over 100,000 quadrillion Btu (100 zettajoules). There probably is enough coal to last for 300 years. However, this estimate assumes no rise in population, and no increased use of coal to attempt to compensate for the depletion of natural gas and petroleum. A recent (2003) study by ...

See also:

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia II - Coal - World coal reserves

The word "coal" came from Anglo-Saxon col, which meant charcoal. Coal was not mined in Britain before late Middle Ages; i.e. after ca. 1000 AD. Mineral coal was referred to as sea-coal, either because it was found on beaches occasionally having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal seam outcrops, or because it was easier to transport by sea rather than on the very poor road system; in London, England there is still a Seacoal Lane (off the north side of Ludgate Hill) whe ...

See also:

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia II - Coal - Etymology and folklore

Stonehenge - Early interpretations. Many early historians were influenced by supernatural folktales in their explanations. Some legends held that Merlin the wizard had a giant build the structure for him or that he had magically transported it from Mount Killaraus in Ireland, while others held the Devil responsible. Henry of Huntingdon was the first to write of the monument around 1130 soon followed by Geoffrey of Monmouth who was the first to record fanciful associations with King Arthur which led the monument to be incorpo ...

See also:

Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Etymology, Stonehenge - Development of Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Before the monument, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 1, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 2, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3i, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3ii, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iii, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iv, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3v, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3vi, Stonehenge - After the monument, Stonehenge - Theories about Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Early interpretations, Stonehenge - Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge, Stonehenge - The bluestones, Stonehenge - Stonehenge as part of a ritual landscape, Stonehenge - Construction techniques and design, Stonehenge - Alternative views, Stonehenge - Excavations at Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Myths and legends, Stonehenge - Recent history, Stonehenge - Laser scanning the Bronze Age dagger and axes at Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Replicas and derivative names

Read more here: » Stonehenge: Encyclopedia II - Stonehenge - Theories about Stonehenge

In 2003 a team from Wessex Archaeology and Archaeoptics used laser scanning technologies to analyse and record the surfaces of the megaliths at Stonehenge which contain prehistoric and post-medieval carvings. This was the first time laser scanning had been used at Stonehenge. The Bronze Age carvings of a dagger and an axehead were first discovered by archaeologist Richard Atkinson in 1953 on stone number 53, one of the imposing sarsen trilithons. A contemporary survey in 1956 by Robert Newell revealed that the total number of axes on ...

See also:

Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Etymology, Stonehenge - Development of Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Before the monument, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 1, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 2, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3i, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3ii, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iii, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3iv, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3v, Stonehenge - Stonehenge 3vi, Stonehenge - After the monument, Stonehenge - Theories about Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Early interpretations, Stonehenge - Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge, Stonehenge - The bluestones, Stonehenge - Stonehenge as part of a ritual landscape, Stonehenge - Construction techniques and design, Stonehenge - Alternative views, Stonehenge - Excavations at Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Myths and legends, Stonehenge - Recent history, Stonehenge - Laser scanning the Bronze Age dagger and axes at Stonehenge, Stonehenge - Replicas and derivative names

Read more here: » Stonehenge: Encyclopedia II - Stonehenge - Laser scanning the Bronze Age dagger and axes at Stonehenge

As elsewhere, roads in England have developed over many years. Perhaps some of the A151 lies on lines which are pre-Roman. In other words, parts are two thousand or more years old. However, change is constant and little of the road is that old. In the nature of things, these changes are poorly or not at all documented, so will be treated generally, in that light, in an overview below. The historical part ...

See also:

A151 road, A151 road - The British Road Numbering System, A151 road - The A151: Summary, A151 road - Turnpike roads, A151 road - Toll gates, A151 road - The Condition of the turnpike roads, A151 road - The Terrain, A151 road - Description, A151 road - The Western End., A151 road - Corby Glen, A151 road - Edenham, A151 road - Bourne, A151 road - Pinchbeck, A151 road - In the Townlands, A151 road - Footnotes

Read more here: » A151 road: Encyclopedia II - A151 road - Turnpike roads

The word "coal" came from Anglo-Saxon col, which meant charcoal. Coal was not mined in Britain before the late Middle Ages; i.e. after ca. 1000 AD. Mineral coal was referred to as sea-coal, either because it was found on beaches occasionally having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal seam outcrops, or because it was easier to transport by sea rather than on the very poor road system; in London, England there is still a Seacoal Lane (off the north side of Ludgate Hill) wh ...

See also:

Coal, Coal - Etymology and folklore, Coal - Composition, Coal - Creation, Coal - Types of coal, Coal - Uses, Coal - Coal as fuel, Coal - Coking and use of coke, Coal - Harmful effects of coal burning, Coal - Coal fires, Coal - World coal reserves

Read more here: » Coal: Encyclopedia II - Coal - Etymology and folklore