The Parthian Empire was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east and it limited Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). The Parthian empire was the most enduring of the empires of the ancient Near East. After the Parni nomads had settled in Parthia and had built a small independent kingdom, they rose to power under king Mithradates the Great ...

Including:

• Parthian Empire - Origins
• Parthian Empire - The Parthian Empire
• Parthian Empire - Government
• Parthian Empire - Contact with China
• Parthian Empire - Conflicts with Rome
• Parthian Empire - Expansion to India
• Parthian Empire - Decline and fall
• Parthian Empire - Parthian rulers
• Parthian Empire - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthian Empire: Encyclopedia - Parthian Empire

The Arsacid Dynasty ruled Persia. Their realm is also called Parthia, which included the Iranian plateau and intermittently Mesopotamia, from 253 BC until their overthrow by the Sassanid Dynasty in AD 226. At certain times Arsacid Kings also ruled over Armenia. Arsacid Dynasty - Historical Background. After the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander III, king of Macedonia, Iran became in a constant conflict between the Iranian traditions and the Hellenistic way of life, between civic life and oriental ...

Including:

• Arsacid Dynasty - Historical Background
• Arsacid Dynasty - The birth of an Empire
• Arsacid Dynasty - Arsacid Parthian Kings of Persia 250 BC - AD 226
• Arsacid Dynasty - Reference

Read more here: » Arsacid Dynasty: Encyclopedia - Arsacid Dynasty

The name "Hyrcania" is how it was recorded by the Greek historians, but the local name in Old Persian was Varkâna as it is recorded in Darius the Great's Behistun Inscription, as well as other inscriptions in Old Persian in cuneiform. Hyrcania is situated between the Caspian Sea -which was called Hyrcanian Ocean in Antiquity- in the north and the Alborz mountains in the south and west. The country has a tropical climate and is very fertile; the Persians considered it one of 'the good lands and countries' which their supreme go ...

See also:

Gorgan, Gorgan - Geography and climate, Gorgan - History, Gorgan - Culture, Gorgan - Handicrafts, Gorgan - Attractions, Gorgan - Colleges and Universities

Read more here: » Gorgan: Encyclopedia II - Gorgan - History

The first cities started developing in southern Mesopotamia during the 4th millennium BC. With these ties of religion began to replace ties of kinship as the basis for society. Each city had a patron god, worshipped in a massive central temple called a ziggurat, and was ruled by a priest-king (ishakku). Society became more segmented and specialized and capable of coordinated projects like irrigation and warfare. Along with cities came a number of advances in technology. By around the 31st century BC, writing, the wheel, ...

See also:

History of the Levant, History of the Levant - The Stone age, History of the Levant - The Bronze age, History of the Levant - The Iron age, History of the Levant - The Classical empires, History of the Levant - The Islamic era, History of the Levant - The Ottoman Period and the 20th Century

Read more here: » History of the Levant: Encyclopedia II - History of the Levant - The Bronze age

Iranian peoples are those who speak an Iranian language, in which case Iranian is an over-arching term for various peoples and their languages, many of whom share a common descent from a particular branch of the ancient Aryans (Iranians), as discerned from the relationship between their languages, as well as between some of their other inherited core cultural traits. The term is derived from the etymological term Iran which is synonymous with Aryan. Although the modern state of Iran adopted the name (after replaci ...

See also:

Iranian peoples, Iranian peoples - Iranian peoples defined, Iranian peoples - Geographic concentration, Iranian peoples - Genetic tests and possible links, Iranian peoples - List of Iranian peoples, Iranian peoples - Past, Iranian peoples - Present, Iranian peoples - Refernces

Read more here: » Iranian peoples: Encyclopedia II - Iranian peoples - Iranian peoples defined

The Parthians were members of the Parni tribe, a nomadic people of Iranian origin, who spoke an Iranian language and entered the Iranian plateau from Central Asia. They were consummate horsemen, known for the 'Parthian shot': turning backwards at full gallop to loose an arrow directly to the rear. Later, at the height of their power, Parthian influence reached as far as Ubar in Arabia, the nexus of the frankincense trade route, where Parthian-inspired ceramics have been found. The power of the early Parthian empire seems to have been overestimated by some ancient historians, w ...

See also:

Parthia, Parthia - Origins, Parthia - The Parthian Empire, Parthia - Government, Parthia - Contact with China, Parthia - Conflicts with Rome, Parthia - Expansion to India, Parthia - Decline and fall, Parthia - Parthian rulers, Parthia - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthia: Encyclopedia II - Parthia - Origins

Avars were driven westward when the Gokturks defeated the Hephthalites in the 550s and the 560s. They entered Europe in the sixth century and, having been bought off by the Eastern Emperor Justinian I, pushed north into Germany (as Attila the Hun had done a century before). Finding the country unsuited to their nomadic lifestyle (and the Franks stern opponents), they turned their attention to the Pannonian plain, which was then being contested by two Germanic tribes, the Lombards and the Gepids. Siding with the Lombards, they destroye ...

See also:

Eurasian Avars, Eurasian Avars - History, Eurasian Avars - List of Avar Rulers, Eurasian Avars - Language, Eurasian Avars - Anthropological origins, Eurasian Avars - Legacy

Read more here: » Eurasian Avars: Encyclopedia II - Eurasian Avars - History

After the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander III, king of Macedonia, Iran became in a constant conflict between the Iranian traditions and the Hellenistic way of life, between civic life and oriental monarchy. In Persia the Hellenistic rulers were ultimately unable to solve these and other problems inherent in such a mixed and complex society, even if there was a strong level of contamination between the two cultures. But the Greeks and their culture ultimately ended up occupying a secondary if important role, while pre-conquest patterns re-emerged stronger than ever, like the persisten ...

See also:

Arsacid Dynasty, Arsacid Dynasty - Historical Background, Arsacid Dynasty - The birth of an Empire, Arsacid Dynasty - Arsacid Parthian Kings of Persia 250 BC - AD 226, Arsacid Dynasty - Reference

Read more here: » Arsacid Dynasty: Encyclopedia II - Arsacid Dynasty - Historical Background

The first cities started developing in southern Mesopotamia during the 4th millennium BC. With these ties of religion began to replace ties of kinship as the basis for society. Each city had a patron god, worshipped in a massive central temple called a ziggurat, and was ruled by a priest-king (ishakku). Society became more segmented and specialized and capable of coordinated projects like irrigation and warfare. Along with cities came a number of advances in technology. By around the 31st century BC, writing, the wheel, ...

See also:

History of the Levant, History of the Levant - The Stone age, History of the Levant - The Bronze age, History of the Levant - The Iron age, History of the Levant - The Classical empires, History of the Levant - The Islamic era, History of the Levant - The Ottoman period and the 20th century

Read more here: » History of the Levant: Encyclopedia II - History of the Levant - The Bronze age

The Parthians were members of the Parni tribe, a nomadic people of Iranian origin, who spoke an Iranian language and entered the Iranian plateau from Central Asia. They were consummate horsemen, known for the 'Parthian shot': turning backwards at full gallop to loose an arrow directly to the rear. Later, at the height of their power, Parthian influence reached as far as Ubar in Arabia, the nexus of the frankincense trade route, where Parthian-inspired ceramics have been found. The power of the early Parthian empire seems to have been overestimated by some ancient histo ...

See also:

Parthian Empire, Parthian Empire - Origins, Parthian Empire - The Parthian Empire, Parthian Empire - Government, Parthian Empire - Contact with China, Parthian Empire - Conflicts with Rome, Parthian Empire - Expansion to India, Parthian Empire - Decline and fall, Parthian Empire - Parthian rulers, Parthian Empire - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthian Empire: Encyclopedia II - Parthian Empire - Origins

The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and City-states behind. A few Hittite centres remained in northern Syria, along with some Phoenician ports in Canaan that escaped destruction and developed into great commercial powers. In the 12th century BC most of the interior, as well as Babylonia, was overrun by Arameans, while the shoreline around today's Gaza Strip fell to the Philistines. By the late 11th-early 10th century BC, Canaan had been conquered by the Hebrews, also known as Israelites who united under one king, David. David made Jerusalem the capital of the Kingdom of Israel ...

See also:

History of the Levant, History of the Levant - The Stone age, History of the Levant - The Bronze age, History of the Levant - The Iron age, History of the Levant - The Classical empires, History of the Levant - The Islamic era, History of the Levant - The Ottoman period and the 20th century

Read more here: » History of the Levant: Encyclopedia II - History of the Levant - The Iron age

From 492-449 BC the Persians made a series of unsuccessful attempts to conquer Greece. The civilisation that had developed there since the end of the bronze age was organised along entirely different lines than those of the Middle East, consisting of numerous small City-States fielding citizen militias. Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe. By the fourth century BC Persia had fallen into decline. The campaigns of Xenophon illustrated how very vulnerable it had become ...

See also:

History of the Levant, History of the Levant - The Stone age, History of the Levant - The Bronze age, History of the Levant - The Iron age, History of the Levant - The Classical empires, History of the Levant - The Islamic era, History of the Levant - The Ottoman period and the 20th century

Read more here: » History of the Levant: Encyclopedia II - History of the Levant - The Classical empires

Initially, ca. 250 BCE, a king named Arsaces established his dynasty's independence from Seleucid rule in remote areas of northern Iran in what is today known as Turkmenistan, where his descendants of the same name ruled until Antiochus III the Great briefly made them submit to Seleucid authority again in 206 BCE. It was not until the 2nd century BCE that the Parthians were able to profit from the continuing erosion of the Seleucid Empire, gradually capturing all its territories east of Syria. Once the Parthians had gained Herat, the ...

See also:

Parthia, Parthia - Origins, Parthia - The Parthian Empire, Parthia - Government, Parthia - Contact with China, Parthia - Conflicts with Rome, Parthia - Expansion to India, Parthia - Decline and fall, Parthia - Parthian rulers, Parthia - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthia: Encyclopedia II - Parthia - The Parthian Empire

After the conquest of Media, Assyria, Babylonia and Elam, the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were Greek, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. An interesting detail is coinage: legends were written in the Greek alphabet, a practice that continued until the 2nd century CE, when local knowledge of the language was in decline and few people knew ho ...

See also:

Parthia, Parthia - Origins, Parthia - The Parthian Empire, Parthia - Government, Parthia - Contact with China, Parthia - Conflicts with Rome, Parthia - Expansion to India, Parthia - Decline and fall, Parthia - Parthian rulers, Parthia - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthia: Encyclopedia II - Parthia - Government

Iranian peoples - Past. Persians Medes (ancient people speaking a precursor to the modern Iranian language) Parthians Parni Cimmerians (ethnicity as Iranians specifically unknown) Sigynnae (uncertain, known only by obscure reports) Scythians Sarmatians, including the Rhoxolani, Iazyges, Siraces, and some regard the Alans as a subset of the Sarmatians as well Bactrians Khwarezmians Alans Saka Sogdians Massagetae Kambojas Pallavas, descended fr ...

See also:

Iranian peoples, Iranian peoples - Iranian peoples defined, Iranian peoples - Geographic concentration, Iranian peoples - Genetic tests and possible links, Iranian peoples - List of Iranian peoples, Iranian peoples - Past, Iranian peoples - Present, Iranian peoples - Refernces

Read more here: » Iranian peoples: Encyclopedia II - Iranian peoples - List of Iranian peoples

In 53 BCE, the Roman general Crassus invaded Parthia, but was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae by a Parthian commander called Surena in the Greek and Latin sources, most likely a member of the Sûrên clan. This was the beginning of a series of wars that were to last for almost three centuries. The Parthian armies included two types of cavalry: the heavily-armed and armoured cataphracts and light brigades of mounted archers. For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the Parthians were hard to defeat, as the cavalry was much faste ...

See also:

Parthia, Parthia - Origins, Parthia - The Parthian Empire, Parthia - Government, Parthia - Contact with China, Parthia - Conflicts with Rome, Parthia - Expansion to India, Parthia - Decline and fall, Parthia - Parthian rulers, Parthia - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthia: Encyclopedia II - Parthia - Conflicts with Rome

Main article:Indo-Parthian Kingdom Also during the 1st century BCE, the Parthians started to make inroads into eastern territories that had been occupied by the Indo-Scythians and the Yuezhi. The Parthians gained control of parts of Bactria and extensive territories in northern India, after defeating local rulers such as the Kushan Empire ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. Around 20 CE, Gondophares, one of the Parthian conquerors, declared his independence from the Parthian empire and established the Indo- ...

See also:

Parthia, Parthia - Origins, Parthia - The Parthian Empire, Parthia - Government, Parthia - Contact with China, Parthia - Conflicts with Rome, Parthia - Expansion to India, Parthia - Decline and fall, Parthia - Parthian rulers, Parthia - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthia: Encyclopedia II - Parthia - Expansion to India

The Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited the neighbouring countries of Bactria and Sogdiana in 126 BCE, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named "Ānxī" (Chinese: 安息), a transliteration of "Arsacid", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, which he equates to those of Dayuan (in Ferghana) and Daxia (in Bactria). "Anxi is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi (in Transoxonia). Th ...

See also:

Parthia, Parthia - Origins, Parthia - The Parthian Empire, Parthia - Government, Parthia - Contact with China, Parthia - Conflicts with Rome, Parthia - Expansion to India, Parthia - Decline and fall, Parthia - Parthian rulers, Parthia - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthia: Encyclopedia II - Parthia - Contact with China

The Armenian compromise served its purpose, but nothing in it covered the deposition of an Armenian king. After 110 CE, the Parthian king Vologases III dethroned the Armenian ruler, and the Roman emperor Trajan decided to invade Parthia in retaliation. War broke out in 114 CE and the Parthians were severely beaten. The Romans conquered Armenia, and in the following year, Trajan marched to the south, where the Parthians were forced to evacuate their strongholds. In 116 CE, Trajan captured Ctesiphon, and establi ...

See also:

Parthia, Parthia - Origins, Parthia - The Parthian Empire, Parthia - Government, Parthia - Contact with China, Parthia - Conflicts with Rome, Parthia - Expansion to India, Parthia - Decline and fall, Parthia - Parthian rulers, Parthia - Etymololgy of Parthia

Read more here: » Parthia: Encyclopedia II - Parthia - Decline and fall

Gorgan has contributed to the rich literature, poetry and science of Iran and even the world by celebrities such as Abdolqaher Gorgani, Sayed Esmail Gorgani, Mirdamad , Mirfenderski, Asad Gorgani and Esmail Hosseini Gorgâni. Gorgan - Handicrafts. Gorgan (and in general, Golestan province), has a world famous carpet and rug industry. Made by Turkmans, they are derived from the ancient Persian city of Boxârâ (Buchara). Jajim carpets are the exclusives of this province. Gorgan - Attractions. ...

See also:

Gorgan, Gorgan - Geography and climate, Gorgan - History, Gorgan - Culture, Gorgan - Handicrafts, Gorgan - Attractions, Gorgan - Colleges and Universities

Read more here: » Gorgan: Encyclopedia II - Gorgan - Culture