Novgorod

Finnish and Sami — the language of Lapland's small indigenous minority — are both Finno-Ugric languages and are in the Uralic rather than the Indo-European family. The closest related language to the Finnish with an official status is Estonian. Both Finnish and Estonian are Baltic Finnish or Finnic languages, while other Finno-Ugric languages are more distant. The origins of the Finnish people and their language are a matter of reinvigorated controversy. In the 19th century the Finnish researcher Castrén prevailed with the theory ...

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History of Finland, History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns, History of Finland - Pre-history, History of Finland - The Middle Ages, History of Finland - The 16th century, History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire, History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason, History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy, History of Finland - Independence and Civil War, History of Finland - Finland in the inter-war era, History of Finland - Finland in World War II, History of Finland - Post-war era, History of Finland - Recent history

Read more here: » History of Finland: Encyclopedia II - History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns

Rurik Dynasty - Princes of Novgorod. Riurik (c.860–879) Oleg (Regent) (879–912) Rurik Dynasty - Rulers of Kievan Rus. Igor (912–945) Olga (Regent) (945–962) Sviatoslav I (962–972) Yaropolk (972–980) Vladimir I (980–1015) Sviatopolk I (1015–1019) Yaroslav (1019–1054) Iziaslav (1054–1073, 1076–1078) Sviatoslav II (1073–1076) Vsevolod (1078–1093)See also:

Rurik Dynasty, Rurik Dynasty - List of rulers of the Rurik Dynasty, Rurik Dynasty - Princes of Novgorod, Rurik Dynasty - Rulers of Kievan Rus, Rurik Dynasty - Muscovite Princes and Grand Princes, Rurik Dynasty - Russian Tsars

Read more here: » Rurik Dynasty: Encyclopedia II - Rurik Dynasty - List of rulers of the Rurik Dynasty

The city was first recorded in the chronicles for the year 1213, but historians believe it could have been founded by Yury Dolgoruky more than half a century earlier. Like other towns of the Eastern Rus, Kostroma was sacked by the Mongols in 1238. It then constituted a small principality, under leadership of Prince Vasily the Drunkard, a younger brother of the famous Alexander Nevsky. Upon inheriting the grand ducal title in 1271, Vasily didn't leave the town for Vladimir, and his descendants ruled Kostroma for another half a ...

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Kostroma, Kostroma - Kostroma under the Rurikids, Kostroma - Kostroma under the Romanovs, Kostroma - Sights and landmarks

Read more here: » Kostroma: Encyclopedia II - Kostroma - Kostroma under the Rurikids

The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia provides eyewitness accounts of the events, with an invaluable and deeply human history. It reveals the complexities of religious motives enmeshed with political aims. The other famous early Livonian text, the Rhymed Chronicle has less historical value, as it was essentially intended as a patriotic and Christian courtly entertainment. The chronicles consist of 4 books. The first two books, "On Livonia" and "On bishop Berthold", describe the arrival of the first two German bishops, Meynard and B ...

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Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, Chronicle of Henry of Livonia - Background, Chronicle of Henry of Livonia - Content, Chronicle of Henry of Livonia - Author, Chronicle of Henry of Livonia - Reference

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Born in Pereslavl-Zalessky, Alexander was the fourth son of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and seemed to have no chance of claiming the throne of Vladimir. In 1236, however, he was summoned by the Novgorodians to become kniaz' (or prince) of Novgorod and, as their military leader, to defend their northwest lands from Swedish and German invaders. After the Swedish army had landed at the confluence of rivers Izhora and Neva, Alexander and his small army suddenly attacked the Swedes on July 15, 1240 and defeated them. The Neva battle of 1240 sav ...

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Alexander Nevsky, Alexander Nevsky - Great victories, Alexander Nevsky - Politician, Alexander Nevsky - Alexander's legacy

Read more here: » Alexander Nevsky: Encyclopedia II - Alexander Nevsky - Great victories

In the aftermath of the February Revolution in Russia, Finland received a new Senate, a coalition-Cabinet with the same power structure as the Finnish Parliament. Based on the general election in 1916, the Social Democrats had a small majority, and the Social Democrat Oskari Tokoi became Prime Minister. The new Senate was willing to cooperate with the revolutionary government of Russia, but no agreement was reached. The Finns' view was basically that the personal union with Russia was finished after the Tsar was dethroned. They expected the ...

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History of Finland, History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns, History of Finland - Pre-history, History of Finland - The Middle Ages, History of Finland - The 16th century, History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire, History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason, History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy, History of Finland - Independence and Civil War, History of Finland - Finland in the inter-war era, History of Finland - Finland in World War II, History of Finland - Post-war era, History of Finland - Recent history

Read more here: » History of Finland: Encyclopedia II - History of Finland - Independence and Civil War

On 27 July 1990, Belarus declared its national sovereignty, a key step toward independence from the Soviet Union. The BSSR was formally renamed the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991. Around that time, Stanislav Shushkevich became the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus. Shushkevich, along with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine met on December 8, 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha, to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union an ...

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History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

Read more here: » History of Belarus: Encyclopedia II - History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus

History of Central Asia - Russia's Campaigns. The forces of the khanates were poorly-eqipped, and could do little to resist the advance of the Tsars' armies, although the Kokandian commander Alimqul led a quixotic campaign before being killed outside Chimkent. The main opposition to Russian expansion into Turkestan came from the British, who felt that Russia was growing too powerful, and threatening the North-West frontiers of British India. This rivalry came to be known as The Great Game, where both powers compe ...

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History of Central Asia, History of Central Asia - Prehistory, History of Central Asia - External influences, History of Central Asia - Return of indigenous rule, History of Central Asia - Conquest of the steppes, History of Central Asia - Foreign control of Turkestan, History of Central Asia - Russia's Campaigns, History of Central Asia - Chinese Influence, History of Central Asia - Revolution and Revolt, History of Central Asia - Soviet and PRC domination, History of Central Asia - Since 1991, History of Central Asia - Notes, History of Central Asia - References & further reading

Read more here: » History of Central Asia: Encyclopedia II - History of Central Asia - Foreign control of Turkestan

In the first and second millennia BC a series of large and powerful states developed on the southern periphery of Central Asia. These empires launched several attempts to conquer the steppe peoples, but met with only mixed success. The Median Empire and Achaemenid Empire both ruled parts of Central Asia. Chinese states would also regularly strive to extend their power westwards. Despite their military might, these states found it almost impossible to conquer the nomads. When faced by a stronger force the nomads could simply retreat deep into ...

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History of Central Asia, History of Central Asia - Prehistory, History of Central Asia - External influences, History of Central Asia - Return of indigenous rule, History of Central Asia - Conquest of the steppes, History of Central Asia - Foreign control of Turkestan, History of Central Asia - Russia's Campaigns, History of Central Asia - Chinese Influence, History of Central Asia - Revolution and Revolt, History of Central Asia - Soviet and PRC domination, History of Central Asia - Since 1991, History of Central Asia - Notes, History of Central Asia - References & further reading

Read more here: » History of Central Asia: Encyclopedia II - History of Central Asia - External influences

The lifestyle that had existed largely unchanged since 500 BC began to disappear after 1500. An important change in the world economy in the fourteenth and fifteenth century was brought about by the development of nautical technology. Ocean trade routes were pioneered by the Europeans, who were cut off from the Silk Road by the Muslim states that controlled its western termini. The trade between East Asia, India, Europe, and the Middle East began to move over the seas and not through Central Asia. The disunity of the region after the end of the Mongol Empire also made trade and t ...

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History of Central Asia, History of Central Asia - Prehistory, History of Central Asia - External influences, History of Central Asia - Return of indigenous rule, History of Central Asia - Conquest of the steppes, History of Central Asia - Foreign control of Turkestan, History of Central Asia - Russia's Campaigns, History of Central Asia - Chinese Influence, History of Central Asia - Revolution and Revolt, History of Central Asia - Soviet and PRC domination, History of Central Asia - Since 1991, History of Central Asia - Notes, History of Central Asia - References & further reading

Read more here: » History of Central Asia: Encyclopedia II - History of Central Asia - Conquest of the steppes

Contact between Sweden and what is now Finland was remarkable even during pre-Christian times — the Vikings were known to Finns both due to their participation in commerce and plundering. However, there is no evidence of Scandinavian settlement in Finland during the Viking Age, with the exception of the Åland Islands. According to the archaeological finds, Christianity gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century AD. According to later sources, Saint Henry, possibly an Englishman, arrived in Finland around 1155, apparently ...

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History of Finland, History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns, History of Finland - Pre-history, History of Finland - The Middle Ages, History of Finland - The 16th century, History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire, History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason, History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy, History of Finland - Independence and Civil War, History of Finland - Finland in the inter-war era, History of Finland - Finland in World War II, History of Finland - Post-war era, History of Finland - Recent history

Read more here: » History of Finland: Encyclopedia II - History of Finland - The Middle Ages

In 1918 the Bolsheviks set up the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, and Bukhara and Khiva also became SSRs. In 1919 the Conciliatory Commission for Turkestan Affairs was established, to try to improve relations between the locals and the Communists. New policies were introduced, respecting local customs and religion. In 1920 the Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, covering modern Kazakhstan, was set up. It was renamed the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1925. In 1924, the Soviets created the Uzbek SSR and the Turkmen SSR. In 1929 the Tajik SSR was split fro ...

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History of Central Asia, History of Central Asia - Prehistory, History of Central Asia - External influences, History of Central Asia - Return of indigenous rule, History of Central Asia - Conquest of the steppes, History of Central Asia - Foreign control of Turkestan, History of Central Asia - Russia's Campaigns, History of Central Asia - Chinese Influence, History of Central Asia - Revolution and Revolt, History of Central Asia - Soviet and PRC domination, History of Central Asia - Since 1991, History of Central Asia - Notes, History of Central Asia - References & further reading

Read more here: » History of Central Asia: Encyclopedia II - History of Central Asia - Soviet and PRC domination

During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Finland was occupied by the Russians, and the south-eastern part, including the important town of Viipuri, was annexed to Russia after the peace of Uusikaupunki. The border with Russia came to lie roughly where it returned to after World War II. Sweden's status as a European great power was gone, and Russia was now the leading might of the North. The absolute monarchy was finished in Sweden. During this Age of Liberty, the Parliament ruled the country, and the two parties of Hats and Caps struggle ...

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History of Finland, History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns, History of Finland - Pre-history, History of Finland - The Middle Ages, History of Finland - The 16th century, History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire, History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason, History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy, History of Finland - Independence and Civil War, History of Finland - Finland in the inter-war era, History of Finland - Finland in World War II, History of Finland - Post-war era, History of Finland - Recent history

Read more here: » History of Finland: Encyclopedia II - History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason

The government's inability to maintain constant supplies and an active economy over a prolonged period of warfare led to mounting national hardship. The army's initial failure to maintain the temporary military successes up to June 1916 led to renewed strikes and riots in the following winter. With Nicholas away at the Front in 1915, authority appeared to collapse (Tsarina Alexandra ran government from Moscow from 1915 - initially with Rasputin, who was later assasinated), and Saint Petersburg was left in the hands of strikers and mutineerin ...

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Nicholas II of Russia, Nicholas II of Russia - Family background and early life, Nicholas II of Russia - Family, Nicholas II of Russia - Relationship with the Duma, Nicholas II of Russia - Tsarevich Alexei's illness, Nicholas II of Russia - The Great War, Nicholas II of Russia - Revolution and abdication, Nicholas II of Russia - Death, Nicholas II of Russia - Sainthood, Nicholas II of Russia - Footnotes

Read more here: » Nicholas II of Russia: Encyclopedia II - Nicholas II of Russia - Revolution and abdication

"Tsar" is a corrupted Slavonic transliteration from the Roman "Caesar", which has a complex history, ending in utter devaluation as the Byzantine empire, which forged ever loftier princely styles for the imperial houses in its long history, commonly handed out 'honorary princeships' to 'allies' (and enemies it needed to placate) of ranks no longer high enough to be reserved for the porphyrogenetes, such as Caesar. Throughout history, the terms Emperor ("Imperator") and Tsar were used informally as if interchangeable for the Russian so ...

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Tsar, Tsar - Etymology and spelling, Tsar - History of usage, Tsar - Bulgaria, Tsar - Russia, Tsar - Full title of Russian tsars, Tsar - Titles in the Russian Royal/Imperial family, Tsar - Notes, Tsar - Serbia, Tsar - Metaphorical uses, Tsar - Sources and References

Read more here: » Tsar: Encyclopedia II - Tsar - History of usage

History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR. Main articles: Belarus National Republic and Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic World War I was the short period when Belarusian culture started to flourish. German administration allowed schools with Belarusian language, previously banned in Russia; a number of Belarusian schools were created until 1919 when they were banned again by Polish military administration. At the end of World War I, when Belarus ...

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History of Belarus, History of Belarus - Early history, History of Belarus - First Belarusian states, History of Belarus - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, History of Belarus - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Belarus - Russian Empire, History of Belarus - 20th century, History of Belarus - BNR and LBSSR, History of Belarus - Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus, History of Belarus - Belarus in World War II, History of Belarus - BSSR from 1945 to 1990, History of Belarus - Republic of Belarus, History of Belarus - Notes

Read more here: » History of Belarus: Encyclopedia II - History of Belarus - 20th century

Prince Boris I is sometimes referred as tsar, because at his time Bulgaria was Christianized. However, the title "tsar" was adopted fully and used as the ruler's royal style in Bulgaria by his son Simeon I, following a decisive victory over the Byzantine Empire in 913. It was also used by all of Simeon I's successors (927-1018;1185-1396) until the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule in 1396. After Bulgaria's liberation from the Ottomans in 1878, its new monarchs adopted the title tsar again a ...

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Tsar, Tsar - Etymology and spelling, Tsar - History of usage, Tsar - Bulgaria, Tsar - Russia, Tsar - Full title of Russian tsars, Tsar - Titles in the Russian Royal/Imperial family, Tsar - Notes, Tsar - Serbia, Tsar - Metaphorical uses, Tsar - Sources and References

Read more here: » Tsar: Encyclopedia II - Tsar - Bulgaria

The archaeological evidence of the Paleolithic, pre-Ice Age settlement in Finland is a debated issue. After the Ice Age, the archaeological evidence for the first settlers of Finland, coming from the south and east, can be traced back to around 8500 BC. The Mesolithic hunter-gatherer settlement is known as the "Suomusjärvi culture". Around 5300 BC the "Comb ceramic cultures", known for their pottery, took over. This marks the beginning of the neolithic for Finland, although the subsistence was still based on hunting and fishing. Extensive n ...

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History of Finland, History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns, History of Finland - Pre-history, History of Finland - The Middle Ages, History of Finland - The 16th century, History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire, History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason, History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy, History of Finland - Independence and Civil War, History of Finland - Finland in the inter-war era, History of Finland - Finland in World War II, History of Finland - Post-war era, History of Finland - Recent history

Read more here: » History of Finland: Encyclopedia II - History of Finland - Pre-history

Over time, as new technologies were introduced, the nomadic horsemen grew in power. The Scythians developed the saddle, and by the time of the Alans the use of the stirrup had begun. Horses continued to grow larger and sturdier so that chariots were no longer needed as the horses could carry men with ease. This greatly increased the mobility of the nomads; it also freed their hands, allowing them to use the bow from horseback. Using small but powerful composite bows, the steppe people gradually became the most powerful military force in the ...

See also:

History of Central Asia, History of Central Asia - Prehistory, History of Central Asia - External influences, History of Central Asia - Return of indigenous rule, History of Central Asia - Conquest of the steppes, History of Central Asia - Foreign control of Turkestan, History of Central Asia - Russia's Campaigns, History of Central Asia - Chinese Influence, History of Central Asia - Revolution and Revolt, History of Central Asia - Soviet and PRC domination, History of Central Asia - Since 1991, History of Central Asia - Notes, History of Central Asia - References & further reading

Read more here: » History of Central Asia: Encyclopedia II - History of Central Asia - Return of indigenous rule

The word tsar is derived from the Latin title Caesar by way of the Old Slavonic tsesar (цесарь). The word is cognate with German Kaiser, Gothic káisar, Dutch keizer, Danish kejser, Swedish kejsare, and Norwegian keiser. The contraction of цесарь into царь occurred by the way of shorthand writing of titles in old Slavonic church manuscripts, see Titlo article. One may see the examples of this, e.g., in th ...

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Tsar, Tsar - Etymology and spelling, Tsar - History of usage, Tsar - Bulgaria, Tsar - Russia, Tsar - Full title of Russian tsars, Tsar - Titles in the Russian Royal/Imperial family, Tsar - Notes, Tsar - Serbia, Tsar - Metaphorical uses, Tsar - Sources and References

Read more here: » Tsar: Encyclopedia II - Tsar - Etymology and spelling

(Main article: Grand Duchy of Finland) During the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, Finland was again conquered by the armies of Tsar Alexander I. The four Estates of occupied Finland were assembled at the Diet of Porvoo on March 29, 1809 to pledge allegiance to Alexander I of Russia. Following the Swedish defeat in the war and the signing of the Treaty of Fredrikshamn on September 17, 1809, Finland remained an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until the end of 1917, with Karelia handed back to Finland in 1812. During ...

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History of Finland, History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns, History of Finland - Pre-history, History of Finland - The Middle Ages, History of Finland - The 16th century, History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire, History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason, History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy, History of Finland - Independence and Civil War, History of Finland - Finland in the inter-war era, History of Finland - Finland in World War II, History of Finland - Post-war era, History of Finland - Recent history

Read more here: » History of Finland: Encyclopedia II - History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy

In 1617 - 1632 Sweden was ruled by King Gustavus Adolphus, whose military reforms transformed the Swedish army from a peasant militia into an efficient fighting machine, possibly the best one in Europe. The conquest of Livonia was now completed, and some territories were taken from internally divided Russia in the Treaty of Stolbova. In 1630, the Swedish (and Finnish) armies marched into Central Europe, as Sweden had decided to take part in the great struggle between Protestant and Catholic forces in Germany, known as the Thirty Years War. T ...

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History of Finland, History of Finland - Earliest origins of the Finns, History of Finland - Pre-history, History of Finland - The Middle Ages, History of Finland - The 16th century, History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire, History of Finland - The 18th century - the Age of Reason, History of Finland - Russian Grand Duchy, History of Finland - Independence and Civil War, History of Finland - Finland in the inter-war era, History of Finland - Finland in World War II, History of Finland - Post-war era, History of Finland - Recent history

Read more here: » History of Finland: Encyclopedia II - History of Finland - The 17th century - the Swedish Empire