most recent common ancestor

In human genetics, Y-chromosomal Adam (Y-mrca) is the male counterpart to mitochondrial Eve: the most recent common ancestor from whom all male human Y chromosomes are descended. Unlike other genes, those of the Y chromosome are passed exclusively from father to sons, just as mitochondrial DNA is passed to all children only by their mothers. The Y-chromosomal Adam can also be defined as the most recent common patrilineal ancestor of all humans, considering an unbroken paternal line of descent only: fathers, paternal gran ...

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A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. In biology, the theory of universal common descent proposes that all organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool.[1] A theory of universal common descent based on evolutionary principles was proposed by Charles Darwin in his book The Origin of Species (1859), and later in The Descent of Man (1871). Thi ...

Including:

• Common descent - History
• Common descent - Evidence for common descent
• Common descent - Universality and similarity
• Common descent - The argument from irrelevant differences
• Common descent - Footnotes

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The validity of human races is a subject of much debate. The American Anthropological Association, drawing on biological research, states that "The concept of race is a social and cultural construction. . . . Race simply cannot be tested or proven scientifically," and that, "It is clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups. The concept of 'race' has no validity . . . in the human species." Most anthropoligists argue that race definitions are imprecise, arbitrary, derived f ...

Including:

• Validity of human races - History of challenges to racial validity
• Validity of human races - Arguments against racial validity
• Validity of human races - Genetic variation
• Validity of human races - Race as a social construct and populationism
• Validity of human races - Arguments for racial validity
• Validity of human races - Genetic definitions of race
• Validity of human races - Footnotes

Read more here: » Validity of human races: Encyclopedia - Validity of human races

Duchess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Sophia Charlotte) (19 May 1744 - 17 November 1818) as Queen Charlotte was the queen consort of King George III. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Birth youth and marriage. Charlotte was the youngest daughter of Charles Louis Frederick, Prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz-Mirow (23 February 1707 - 5 June 1752) and his wife, Elizabeth Albertine, Princess of Saxe-Hildburghausen and Duchess of Saxony (4 August 1713 - 29 June 1761). She was a gr ...

Including:

• Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Birth youth and marriage
• Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Issue
• Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Interests and patronage
• Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Husband's illness
• Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Death
• Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Ancestral studies postulating African features
• Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Named in her honor

Read more here: » Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: Encyclopedia - Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Modern supporters of racial invalidity note that the preponderance of evidence suggests that all human beings are descended from a common ancestor. Second, they observe that there are many biological differences between people that are not taken into account by race (for example, blood type). Finally, they point out that oftentimes the genetic differences between members of the same race are greater than the average genetic difference between races. For example, the variation in blood types within specific groups is 85%, but the total variation between groups is onl ...

See also:

Validity of human races, Validity of human races - History of challenges to racial validity, Validity of human races - Arguments against racial validity, Validity of human races - Genetic variation, Validity of human races - Race as a social construct and populationism, Validity of human races - Arguments for racial validity, Validity of human races - Genetic definitions of race, Validity of human races - Footnotes

Read more here: » Validity of human races: Encyclopedia II - Validity of human races - Arguments against racial validity

While various forms of this approach to race have likely existed since "race" became a prominent way of thinking about human variations, the "one-drop theory" formally came out of the context of the early 20th century United States. Some Americans began to adopt the one-drop notion of invisible Blackness informally in the 1840s in the North, the 1870s in the upper South, and the 1890s in the lower South. But it was not legislated into law in any state until the 1910s (Tennessee, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi) and the 1920s (North C ...

See also:

One-drop theory, One-drop theory - History, One-drop theory - Future, One-drop theory - Alternatives, One-drop theory - Footnotes

Read more here: » One-drop theory: Encyclopedia II - One-drop theory - History

Although Mitochondrial Eve was named after Eve of the Genesis creation myth, this has led to some misunderstandings among the general public. A common misconception is that Mitochondrial Eve was the only living female of her time — she was not (indeed, had she been, humanity would have probably become extinct). Rather, at all times during humanity's existence there has been a large population of humans. Many women alive at the same time as Mitochondrial Eve have descendants alive today. However, only Mitochondrial Eve produced an unbrok ...

See also:

Mitochondrial Eve, Mitochondrial Eve - Matrilineal descent, Mitochondrial Eve - Most recent common ancestor, Mitochondrial Eve - Mitochondrial DNA, Mitochondrial Eve - Academic investigation, Mitochondrial Eve - Eve and the Out-of-Africa theory, Mitochondrial Eve - In popular culture

Read more here: » Mitochondrial Eve: Encyclopedia II - Mitochondrial Eve - Matrilineal descent

The first estimate of Mungo Man's age was made in 1976, when the team of paleoanthropologists from the Australian National University (ANU) who excavated Mungo Man published their findings. They estimated that Mungo Man was between 28,000 and 32,000 years old. They did not test Mungo Man's remains directly, but rather established an estimate by stratigraphic comparison with Mungo Lady, an earlier set of partially cremated ...

See also:

Mungo Man, Mungo Man - Discovery, Mungo Man - Age, Mungo Man - Mitochondrial DNA study

Read more here: » Mungo Man: Encyclopedia II - Mungo Man - Age

Proto-Germanic language - Consonants. Since the fricatives ƀ, đ, ǥ are not in phonological contrast with voiced stops, they are also written as simple b, d, g. The most notable change in the Germanic languages, Grimm's law, is a chain shift of the stop consonants: /p/ > /f/; /b/ > /p/; /bʰ/ > /b/ /t/ > See also:

Proto-Germanic language, Proto-Germanic language - Evolution of Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic language - Hybridization as conjectured cause, Proto-Germanic language - Non-Indo-European elements, Proto-Germanic language - Phonology, Proto-Germanic language - Consonants, Proto-Germanic language - Vowels, Proto-Germanic language - Morphology, Proto-Germanic language - Simplification of the inflectional system, Proto-Germanic language - Nouns, Proto-Germanic language - Adjectives, Proto-Germanic language - Determiners

Read more here: » Proto-Germanic language: Encyclopedia II - Proto-Germanic language - Phonology

Experience shows that genealogical "facts" can be unreliable. The top five classes of genealogical information — place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates — differ in their degree of reliability. Genealogy - Place names. Place names are normally the most accurate because they tend to be long lasting. Nevertheless, place name data may be occasionally inaccurate or confusing. Inaccurate place names in records may be caused by a number of factors. First, place names may be subject to ...

See also:

Genealogy, Genealogy - Overview, Genealogy - Modern research, Genealogy - LDS collections, Genealogy - Genetic Analysis, Genealogy - Sharing data among researchers, Genealogy - Organizations, Genealogy - Volunteerism, Genealogy - Records in genealogical research, Genealogy - Reliability of sources, Genealogy - Place names, Genealogy - Occupations, Genealogy - Family Names, Genealogy - First Names, Genealogy - Dates, Genealogy - The maximum relationship, Genealogy - Software, Genealogy - Notes and References

Read more here: » Genealogy: Encyclopedia II - Genealogy - Reliability of sources

The first suggestion that all organisms may have had a common ancestor and diverged through random variation and natural selection was made in 1745 by the French mathematician and scientist Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698-1759) in his work Vénus physique. Specifically: "Could one not say that, in the fortuitous combinations of the productions of nature, as there must be some characterized by a certain relation of fitness which are able to subsist, it is not to be wondered at that this fitness is present in all th ...

See also:

Common descent, Common descent - History, Common descent - Evidence for common descent, Common descent - Universality and similarity, Common descent - The argument from irrelevant differences, Common descent - Footnotes

Read more here: » Common descent: Encyclopedia II - Common descent - History

Genetic genealogy - Paternal and maternal lineages. The two most common types of genetic genealogy tests are the Y-DNA (paternal line) and mtDNA (maternal line) genealogical DNA tests. These tests involve the comparison of the DNA of one individual to that of another to scientifically determine how many generations ago the two individuals shared their most recent common ancestor. These tests allow two individuals to determine with 99.9% certainty that they are related within a certain time frame, or with 100% cer ...

See also:

Genetic genealogy, Genetic genealogy - Uses, Genetic genealogy - Paternal and maternal lineages, Genetic genealogy - Biogeographical and ethnic origins, Genetic genealogy - Human migration, Genetic genealogy - Benefits, Genetic genealogy - Drawbacks, Genetic genealogy - Important concepts, Genetic genealogy - Related fields, Genetic genealogy - Patrilineal relationships, Genetic genealogy - Matrilineal relationships, Genetic genealogy - Biogeography ethnicity and migration, Genetic genealogy - Projects

Read more here: » Genetic genealogy: Encyclopedia II - Genetic genealogy - Uses

Charlotte was the youngest daughter of Charles Louis Frederick, Prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz-Mirow (23 February 1707 - 5 June 1752) and his wife, Elizabeth Albertine, Princess of Saxe-Hildburghausen and Duchess of Saxony (4 August 1713 - 29 June 1761). She was a granddaughter of Adolf Friedrich II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (October 19, 1658 - May 12, 1708) by his third wife, Christiane Emilie Antonie, Princess of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (March, 1681 - November 1, 1751). Her ...

See also:

Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Birth youth and marriage, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Issue, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Interests and patronage, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Husband's illness, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Death, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Ancestral studies postulating African features, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Named in her honor

Read more here: » Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: Encyclopedia II - Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Birth youth and marriage

Genealogical DNA tests allow one to compare their DNA with that of others. They are also used to identify possible recent and far distant ethnic and geographic origins. The most popular such tests are Y chromosome (Y-DNA) testing and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) testing. Other, less well validated tests attempt to determine distant and recent ethnic origins. Genealogical DNA test - Y chromosome Y-DNA testing. A man's paternal ancestry can be traced using the DNA on his Y chromosome (Y-DNA). This is particular ...

See also:

Genealogical DNA test, Genealogical DNA test - Procedure, Genealogical DNA test - Types of tests, Genealogical DNA test - Y chromosome Y-DNA testing, Genealogical DNA test - Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA testing, Genealogical DNA test - Haplotype and haplogroup, Genealogical DNA test - Ethnic tests, Genealogical DNA test - Benefits, Genealogical DNA test - Drawbacks, Genealogical DNA test - Medical information

Read more here: » Genealogical DNA test: Encyclopedia II - Genealogical DNA test - Types of tests

Charlotte was the youngest daughter of Charles Louis Frederick, Prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz-Mirow (23 February 1707 - 5 June 1752) and his wife, Elizabeth Albertine, Princess of Saxe-Hildburghausen and Duchess of Saxony (4 August 1713 - 29 June 1761). She was a granddaughter of Adolf Friedrich II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (October 19, 1658 - May 12, 1708) by his third wife, Christiane Emilie Antonie, Princess of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (March, 1681 - November 1, 1751). H ...

See also:

Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Birth, youth, and marriage, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Issue, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Interests and patronage, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Husband's illness, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Death, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Ancestral studies postulating African features, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Named in her honor

Read more here: » Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: Encyclopedia II - Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz - Birth, youth, and marriage

As an alternative to this theory, various terms were coined during the 19th century to denote persons with varying degrees of African ancestry; these terms included mulatto for one-half black, quadroon for one-quarter black, octoroon for one-eighth black, and quintroon (or much less commonly, hexadecaroon) for one-sixteenth black. Other such terms include sambo, metif, mustee and sang-mêlé(mixe ...

See also:

One-drop theory, One-drop theory - History, One-drop theory - Future, One-drop theory - Alternatives, One-drop theory - Footnotes

Read more here: » One-drop theory: Encyclopedia II - One-drop theory - Alternatives

Indo-European speakers are thought by some scholars to have arrived at the plains of southern Sweden and Denmark, regarded to be the original dwelling-place of the Germanic peoples, during the early Bronze Age (about 4000 years ago). This is the only area where no pre-Germanic place names have been found. The Battle-axe people is the best candidate for this immigration. Another characteristic is various sound shifts called Grimm's law, which, due to the fact that it also affected Celtic loan words, probably began around 500 BC and must have been completed by the 2 ...

See also:

Proto-Germanic language, Proto-Germanic language - Evolution of Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic language - Hybridization as conjectured cause, Proto-Germanic language - Non-Indo-European elements, Proto-Germanic language - Phonology, Proto-Germanic language - Consonants, Proto-Germanic language - Vowels, Proto-Germanic language - Morphology, Proto-Germanic language - Simplification of the inflectional system, Proto-Germanic language - Nouns, Proto-Germanic language - Adjectives, Proto-Germanic language - Determiners

Read more here: » Proto-Germanic language: Encyclopedia II - Proto-Germanic language - Evolution of Proto-Germanic

The main reasons people cite for not wanting to be DNA tested is cost or concerns over privacy issues. However, costs are becoming increasingly cheaper. Additionally, privacy and confidentiality of one's genetic markers can be restricted to families or groups. In such databases, listing of individuals is often anonymous and identified by a number which may only be known to the individual. Finally, Y-DNA and mtDNA testing each only trace a single lineage (one's father's father's father's etc. lineage or one's mother's mother's mother's ...

See also:

Genetic genealogy, Genetic genealogy - Uses, Genetic genealogy - Paternal and maternal lineages, Genetic genealogy - Biogeographical and ethnic origins, Genetic genealogy - Human migration, Genetic genealogy - Benefits, Genetic genealogy - Drawbacks, Genetic genealogy - Important concepts, Genetic genealogy - Related fields, Genetic genealogy - Patrilineal relationships, Genetic genealogy - Matrilineal relationships, Genetic genealogy - Biogeography ethnicity and migration, Genetic genealogy - Projects

Read more here: » Genetic genealogy: Encyclopedia II - Genetic genealogy - Drawbacks

The main reasons people cite for not wanting to be tested is the cost or concerns over privacy issues. In addition, Y-DNA and mtDNA testing each only trace a single lineage (one's father's father's father's etc. lineage or one's mother's mother's mother's etc. lineage). At 10 generations back, an individual has 1024 ancestors (excluding intermarriages) and a Y-DNA or mtDNA test is only studying one of those 1024 ancestors. ...

See also:

Genealogical DNA test, Genealogical DNA test - Procedure, Genealogical DNA test - Types of tests, Genealogical DNA test - Y chromosome Y-DNA testing, Genealogical DNA test - Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA testing, Genealogical DNA test - Haplotype and haplogroup, Genealogical DNA test - Ethnic tests, Genealogical DNA test - Benefits, Genealogical DNA test - Drawbacks, Genealogical DNA test - Medical information

Read more here: » Genealogical DNA test: Encyclopedia II - Genealogical DNA test - Drawbacks

Some biologists believe that the view that races are a social construct or not biologically significant is incorrect. They point to the existence of groups determined on the basis of multi-locus genetic analysis as evidence that human population structure does exist and to some extent resembles conventional definitions of race. In most contemporary research, races are defined as evolutionary linages: "a subspecies (race) is a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species. This definition requires that a subspecies be genetically differentia ...

See also:

Validity of human races, Validity of human races - History of challenges to racial validity, Validity of human races - Arguments against racial validity, Validity of human races - Genetic variation, Validity of human races - Race as a social construct and populationism, Validity of human races - Arguments for racial validity, Validity of human races - Genetic definitions of race, Validity of human races - Footnotes

Read more here: » Validity of human races: Encyclopedia II - Validity of human races - Arguments for racial validity