methodological

Relativism is the view that the meaning and value of human beliefs and behaviors have no absolute reference. Relativists claim that humans understand and evaluate beliefs and behaviors only in terms of, for example, their historical and cultural context. Philosophers identify many different kinds of relativism depending upon what allegedly depends on something and what something depends on. The term is often used for truth relativism - the doctrine th ...

Including:

• Relativism - Advocates of relativism
• Relativism - Arguments against relativism
• Relativism - Counter-arguments
• Relativism - The Catholic Church and relativism
• Relativism - John Paul II
• Relativism - Benedict XVI
• Relativism - See Also

Read more here: » Relativism: Encyclopedia - Relativism

Paul Karl Feyerabend (January 13, 1924 - February 11, 1994) was an Austrian-born philosopher of science who lived in England, the United States, New Zealand, Italy, and finally Switzerland. His major works include Against Method (published in 1975), Science in a Free Society (published in 1978) and Farewell to Reason (a collection of papers published in 1987). Feyerabend became famous for his purportedly anarchistic view of science and his rejection of the existence of universal methodological rules. He is an infl ...

Including:

• Paul Feyerabend - Biography
• Paul Feyerabend - Work regarding the nature of scientific method
• Paul Feyerabend - Work regarding the role of science in society
• Paul Feyerabend - Other works
• Paul Feyerabend - Bibliography

Read more here: » Paul Feyerabend: Encyclopedia - Paul Feyerabend

History of creationism Creation in Genesis Types of creationism: Young Earth creationism - Creation science Old Earth creationism Omphalos creationism Theistic evolution Neo-Creationism Islamic creationism Intelligent design - Intelligent design movement Modern geocentrism Controversy: Creation vs. evolution ... in public education
Including:

• Creation science - History and organization
• Creation science - Issues in creation science
• Creation science - Religious criticisms of creation science
• Creation science - Scientific criticisms of creation science
• Creation science - Subjects within creation science
• Creation science - Creation biology
• Creation science - Flood geology
• Creation science - Creationist cosmologies

Read more here: » Creation science: Encyclopedia - Creation science

Hermeneutics may be described as the theory of interpretation and understanding of a text through empirical means. It should not be confused with the concrete practice of interpretation called exegesis. Exegesis extracts the meaning of a passage of text and enlarges upon it and explicates it with explanatory glosses; hermeneutics addresses the ways in which a reader may come to the broadest understanding of the creator of text and his relation to his audiences, both local and over time, within the constraints of culture and his ...

Including:

• Hermeneutics - Etymology
• Hermeneutics - Biblical hermeneutics
• Hermeneutics - Medieval hermeneutics
• Hermeneutics - Renaissance hermeneutics
• Hermeneutics - Hermeneutic traditions
• Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics in Law
• Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics in Sociology
• Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics of Schleiermacher and Dilthey
• Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics since Dilthey
• Hermeneutics - Misuse

Read more here: » Hermeneutics: Encyclopedia - Hermeneutics

History of creationism Creation in Genesis Types of creationism: Young Earth creationism - Creation science Old Earth creationism Omphalos creationism Theistic evolution Neo-Creationism Islamic creationism Intelligent design - Intelligent design movement Modern geocentrism Controversy: Creation vs. evolution ... in public education Associated articles Teach the Controversy Irreducible ...

Including:

• Intelligent design - Intelligent design in summary
• Intelligent design - Origins of the concept
• Intelligent design - Origins of the term
• Intelligent design - Concepts
• Intelligent design - Irreducible complexity
• Intelligent design - Specified complexity
• Intelligent design - Fine-tuned universe
• Intelligent design - The designer or designers
• Intelligent design - Intelligent design as a movement
• Intelligent design - Religion and leading proponents
• Intelligent design - Intelligent design debate
• Intelligent design - ID as science
• Intelligent design - Intelligence as an observable quality
• Intelligent design - Arguments from ignorance
• Intelligent design - Notes and references

Read more here: » Intelligent design: Encyclopedia - Intelligent design

How children acquire native language (L1) and the relevance of this to foreign language (L2) learning has long been debated. Although evidence for L2 learning ability declining with age is controversial, a common notion is that children learn L2s easily, whilst older learners rarely achieve fluency. This assumption stems from ‘critical period’ (CP) ideas. A CP was originally postulated by Lenneberg in 1967 for L1 acquisition, but considerable interest now surrounds age effects on second language acquisition (SLA). SLA theories explain le ...

See also:

Second language acquisition, Second language acquisition - Describing learner language, Second language acquisition - Error analysis, Second language acquisition - Interlanguage, Second language acquisition - Developmental patterns, Second language acquisition - Variability, Second language acquisition - Learner-external factors, Second language acquisition - Social effects, Second language acquisition - Input and intake, Second language acquisition - Interaction, Second language acquisition - Pedagogical effects, Second language acquisition - Learner-internal factors, Second language acquisition - Summary of Critical Period Research to date, Second language acquisition - Other Directions of Research, Second language acquisition - Cognitive approaches, Second language acquisition - Language transfer, Second language acquisition - Linguistic universals, Second language acquisition - Individual variation, Second language acquisition - Language aptitude, Second language acquisition - Age, Second language acquisition - Strategy use, Second language acquisition - Affective factors, Second language acquisition - Understanding SLA, Second language acquisition - Concepts of ability, Second language acquisition - References and further reading

Read more here: » Second language acquisition: Encyclopedia II - Second language acquisition - Summary of Critical Period Research to date

Scientific racism - Early studies of racial differences. Regular scientific examinations of race and other differences between people of different geographical locations began at least as early as the 18th century. It was especially during the end of the 19th century, though, when works specifically ranking different groups of people became extremely popular. The attention focused on race leading up to, during, and after the American Civil War led to a proliferation of works looking at the physiological differenc ...

See also:

Scientific racism, Scientific racism - History, Scientific racism - Early studies of racial differences, Scientific racism - Challenges from within the scientific community, Scientific racism - Self-consciousness, Scientific racism - Modern usage

Read more here: » Scientific racism: Encyclopedia II - Scientific racism - History

There is no scientifically proven cause of transsexualism. However, many theories have been proposed which suggest that the cause of transsexualism has its roots in biology. Because of this, the medical care profession is increasingly viewing transsexuality not as a psychological issue, but as a physical one. But many religious conservatives and others still believe that the causes of transsexualism are predominantly psychological. See also:

Transsexuality, Transsexuality - Definitions, Transsexuality - Terminology, Transsexuality - Causes of transsexualism, Transsexuality - Proposed psychological causes, Transsexuality - Physical causes, Transsexuality - Objections against research of causes, Transsexuality - Gender reassignment therapy, Transsexuality - Psychological treatment, Transsexuality - Requirements for gender reassignment treatment, Transsexuality - Hormone replacement therapy, Transsexuality - Sex reassignment surgery, Transsexuality - Legal and social aspects, Transsexuality - Stealth, Transsexuality - Transsexual youth, Transsexuality - Coming out, Transsexuality - Puberty, Transsexuality - Ensuring the child's security, Transsexuality - Retransitions, Transsexuality - Depictions of transsexuality in the media, Transsexuality - Transsexuals in non-Western cultures

Read more here: » Transsexuality: Encyclopedia II - Transsexuality - Causes of transsexualism

Hermeneutics in the Western world, as a general science of text interpretation, can be traced back to two separate sources. One source was the ancient Greek rhetoricians' study of literature, which came to fruition in Hellenistic Alexandria. The other source has been the contemporary Midrash traditions of Biblical exegesis, that were contemporary with Hellenistic culture. Scholars in antiquity expected a text to be coherent, consistent in grammar, style and outlook, and they emended obscure or "decadent" readings to comply with their codified rules. By extending the perception of inherent logic of texts, Gre ...

See also:

Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics - Etymology, Hermeneutics - Biblical hermeneutics, Hermeneutics - Medieval hermeneutics, Hermeneutics - Renaissance hermeneutics, Hermeneutics - Hermeneutic traditions, Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics in Law, Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics in Sociology, Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics of Schleiermacher and Dilthey, Hermeneutics - Hermeneutics since Dilthey, Hermeneutics - Misuse

Read more here: » Hermeneutics: Encyclopedia II - Hermeneutics - Hermeneutic traditions

There is a distinct difference between a methodological assumption of naturalism and an ontological approach. Methodology relates to the accepted procedures. Ontology is a matter of whether something exists. Many philosophers of science define scientific investigation in a manner which limits it to studying and explaining the natural world. Naturalism of this sort says nothing about the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural. Ontological naturalism is sometimes called "metaphysical naturalism". Ontological naturalism is the vie ...

See also:

Naturalism philosophy, Naturalism philosophy - Methodological naturalism versus ontological naturalism, Naturalism philosophy - Naturalism as epistemology, Naturalism philosophy - Naturalism and philosophy of mind, Naturalism philosophy - History, Naturalism philosophy - Criticism of naturalism, Naturalism philosophy - Scientific materialism, Naturalism philosophy - Neutral links, Naturalism philosophy - Supportive links, Naturalism philosophy - Critical links

Read more here: » Naturalism philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Naturalism philosophy - Methodological naturalism versus ontological naturalism

Evolutionary creationism is a variant of creationism which accepts microevolution and macroevolution while retaining a theistic interpretation of evolution. Theistic evolution is accepted (or at least not rejected) by major Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism; some Judaism denominations; and other religious organizations that lack a literalist stance concerning holy scriptures. With this approach toward evolution, scriptural creation stor ...

See also:

Theistic evolution, Theistic evolution - Spectrum of viewpoints, Theistic evolution - Deism, Theistic evolution - Other variants, Theistic evolution - Christianity, Theistic evolution - Christian Justification for Evolution, Theistic evolution - Islam, Theistic evolution - Judaism, Theistic evolution - Evolutionary biologists who were also theists, Theistic evolution - Criticisms of theistic evolution

Read more here: » Theistic evolution: Encyclopedia II - Theistic evolution - Spectrum of viewpoints

Intelligent design's opponents argue that among scientists, there is no debate about whether life evolved. A key strategy of the intelligent design movement is in convincing the general public that there is such a debate, and convincing the public, politicians, and cultural leaders that schools should "teach the controversy."[36] The intelligent design debate centers on three issues: Whether the definition of science is broad enough t ...

See also:

Intelligent design, Intelligent design - Intelligent design in summary, Intelligent design - Origins of the concept, Intelligent design - Origins of the term, Intelligent design - Concepts, Intelligent design - Irreducible complexity, Intelligent design - Specified complexity, Intelligent design - Fine-tuned universe, Intelligent design - The designer or designers, Intelligent design - Intelligent design as a movement, Intelligent design - Religion and leading proponents, Intelligent design - Intelligent design debate, Intelligent design - ID as science, Intelligent design - Intelligence as an observable quality, Intelligent design - Arguments from ignorance, Intelligent design - Notes and references

Read more here: » Intelligent design: Encyclopedia II - Intelligent design - Intelligent design debate

Creation science has its roots in the ongoing effort by young-earth creationists to critique modern science's description of natural history (particularly biological evolution, but also geology and physical cosmology) while attempting to offer an alternative explanation of observable phenomena—an explanation they also describe as "science"—compatible with the Biblical account. The proponents of creation science often argue that many observable phenomena fit more easily into the Biblical account than with the naturalistic worldview ...

See also:

Creation science, Creation science - History and organization, Creation science - Issues in creation science, Creation science - Religious criticisms of creation science, Creation science - Scientific criticisms of creation science, Creation science - Subjects within creation science, Creation science - Creation biology, Creation science - Flood geology, Creation science - Creationist cosmologies

Read more here: » Creation science: Encyclopedia II - Creation science - Issues in creation science

A key strategy of the intelligent design movement is in convincing the general public that there is a debate among scientists about whether life evolved, seeking to convince the public, politicians, and cultural leaders that schools should "teach the controversy."[38] However, there is no such controversy; the scientific consensus is that life evolved.^{See also:}

Intelligent design, Intelligent design - Intelligent design in summary, Intelligent design - Origins of the concept, Intelligent design - Origins of the term, Intelligent design - Concepts, Intelligent design - Irreducible complexity, Intelligent design - Specified complexity, Intelligent design - Fine-tuned universe, Intelligent design - The designer or designers, Intelligent design - Intelligent design as a movement, Intelligent design - Religion and leading proponents, Intelligent design - Intelligent design controversy, Intelligent design - ID as science, Intelligent design - Intelligence as an observable quality, Intelligent design - Arguments from ignorance, Intelligent design - Notes and references

Read more here: » Intelligent design: Encyclopedia II - Intelligent design - Intelligent design controversy

There is a distinct difference between an ontological approach to naturalism and a methodological assumption of naturalism. Ontology is a matter of whether something exists, while methodology relates to the accepted practical procedures used in science. Ontological naturalism is sometimes called "metaphysical naturalism". Ontological naturalism is the view that the supernatural does not exist, and Atheism is an example of ontological naturalism concerning the existence of gods. In contrast, methodological naturalism is the more ...

See also:

Naturalism philosophy, Naturalism philosophy - Methodological naturalism versus ontological naturalism, Naturalism philosophy - Naturalism as epistemology, Naturalism philosophy - Naturalism and philosophy of mind, Naturalism philosophy - History, Naturalism philosophy - Criticism of naturalism, Naturalism philosophy - Scientific materialism, Naturalism philosophy - Neutral links, Naturalism philosophy - Supportive links, Naturalism philosophy - Critical links

Read more here: » Naturalism philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Naturalism philosophy - Methodological naturalism versus ontological naturalism

To avoid disrupting the rats with the usual daily weighing of the morphine containers, Alexander built a short tunnel large enough to accommodate one rat at a time. At the far end of the tunnel, the rats could drink a fluid from one of two drop dispensers, which automatically recorded how much each rat drank. One dispenser contained a morphine solution and the other plain tap water. The experiments indicated that "rats living in Rat Park had little appetite for morphine." [10] In some experiments, Alexander forced the rats to consume ...

See also:

Rat Park, Rat Park - The disease model of drug addiction, Rat Park - Most animal studies support the disease model, Rat Park - The Rat Park experiments, Rat Park - Reaction to the experiment

Read more here: » Rat Park: Encyclopedia II - Rat Park - The Rat Park experiments

The Catholic Church for some time now, especially with Pope Benedict XVI, head of the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith when he was a cardinal, has identified relativism as one of the problems of today. [1] According to the Church and some philosophers, relativism, as a denial of absolute truth, leads to moral license and a denial of the possibility of sin and of God. Relativism, they say, is a denial of the capacity of our mind and reason to arrive at truth. Truth, according to Catholic theologians and philosophers, fo ...

See also:

Relativism, Relativism - Advocates of relativism, Relativism - Arguments against relativism, Relativism - Counter-arguments, Relativism - The Catholic Church and relativism, Relativism - John Paul II, Relativism - Benedict XVI, Relativism - See Also

Read more here: » Relativism: Encyclopedia II - Relativism - The Catholic Church and relativism

In his books Against Method and Science in a Free Society Feyerabend defended the idea that there are no methodological rules which are always used by scientists. He objected to any single prescriptive scientific method on the grounds that any such method would limit the activities of scientists, and hence restrict scientific progress. In his view, science would benefit most from a "dose" of theoretical anarchism. He also thought that theoretical anarchism was desirable because it was more humanitar ...

See also:

Paul Feyerabend, Paul Feyerabend - Biography, Paul Feyerabend - Work regarding the nature of scientific method, Paul Feyerabend - Work regarding the role of science in society, Paul Feyerabend - Other works, Paul Feyerabend - Bibliography

Read more here: » Paul Feyerabend: Encyclopedia II - Paul Feyerabend - Work regarding the nature of scientific method

Evolutionary creationism is a variant of creationism which accepts microevolution and macroevolution while retaining a theistic interpretation of evolution. Theistic evolution is accepted (or at least not rejected) by major Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism; some Judaism denominations; and other religious organizations that lack a literalist stance concerning holy scriptures. With this approach toward evolution, scriptural creation stories are typically interpreted as being allegorical in nature. Many individuals stress the unreliability of Genesis as a scientific text ...

See also:

Theistic evolution, Theistic evolution - Spectrum of viewpoints, Theistic evolution - Deism, Theistic evolution - Other variants, Theistic evolution - Christianity, Theistic evolution - Christian Justification for Evolution, Theistic evolution - Islam, Theistic evolution - Judaism, Theistic evolution - Evolutionary biologists who were also theists, Theistic evolution - Criticisms of theistic evolution

Read more here: » Theistic evolution: Encyclopedia II - Theistic evolution - Spectrum of viewpoints

Biologists refer to this misconception as teleology, the idea of intrinsic finality that things are "supposed" to be and behave a certain way, and naturally tend to act that way to pursue their own good. As the fossil record demonstrates that more than ninety nine percent of all species that ever lived are now extinct it is clear that most species do not evolve despite radical environmental changes. From a biological viewpoint, when species evolve it is not a reaction to necessity, but ...

See also:

Devolution fallacy, Devolution fallacy - Misconceptions about evolution, Devolution fallacy - Use of the term by opponents of evolution, Devolution fallacy - Devolution in Science Fiction, Devolution fallacy - Devolution as a Metaphor

Read more here: » Devolution fallacy: Encyclopedia II - Devolution fallacy - Misconceptions about evolution