metabolic pathway

Definition and meaning of metabolic pathway:

metabolic pathway - a set of oriented reactions interacting under given physiological conditions via simple or apparently simple intermediates. There are relatively few metabolic pathways, but each of these can be broken down into many individual, enzyme-specific, catalysed steps

(Source: US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) )

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Urea is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, with the formula CON2H4 or (NH2)2CO. Urea is also known as carbamide, especially in the recommended International Non-proprietary Names (rINN) in use in Europe. For example, the medicinal compound hydroxyurea (old British Approved Name) is now hydroxycarbamide. Urea - Physiology. The individual atoms of urea come from carbon dioxide, water, aspartate and ammonia in a ...

Including:

• Urea - Physiology
• Urea - Discovery
• Urea - Commercial Production
• Urea - Industrial use
• Urea - Laboratory use
• Urea - Medical use
• Urea - Drug use
• Urea - Physiological diagnosis
• Urea - Other diagnostic use

Read more here: » Urea: Encyclopedia - Urea

The enzyme xanthine oxidase, or XO, (bovine milk enzyme is PDB 1FIQ, EC 1.1.3.32) catalyzes the oxidation of hypoxanthine to xanthine and can further catalyze the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid: hypoxanthine + O2 <-> xanthine + H2O2 xanthine + O2 + 2H2O <-> uric acid + 2H2O2 The protein is large, having a molecular weight of 270,000, and has 2 flavin molecules (bound as FAD), 2 molyb ...

Read more here: » Xanthine oxidase: Encyclopedia - Xanthine oxidase

Cellular respiration is the process in which the chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules such as glucose are converted into energy usable for life processes. Oxidation of organic material—in a bonfire, for example—is an exothermic reaction that releases a large amount of energy rather quickly. The equation for the oxidation of glucose is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6HIncluding:

• Cellular respiration - Aerobic respiration
• Cellular respiration - Glycolysis
• Cellular respiration - Oxidative decarboxylation
• Cellular respiration - Krebs cycle/Citric Acid cycle
• Cellular respiration - Oxidative phosphorylation
• Cellular respiration - Theoretical yields
• Cellular respiration - Anaerobic respiration

Read more here: » Cellular respiration: Encyclopedia - Cellular respiration

The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that utilize oxygen as part of cellular respiration. In these aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is a metabolic pathway that forms part of the break down of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water in order to generate energy. It is the second of three metabolic pathways that are involved in fuel molecule catabolism and ATP production, the o ...

Including:

• Citric acid cycle - History
• Citric acid cycle - Location of cycle and inputs and outputs
• Citric acid cycle - Regulation
• Citric acid cycle - Major metabolic pathways converging on the TCA cycle

Read more here: » Citric acid cycle: Encyclopedia - Citric acid cycle

In the various subfields of physics, there exist two common usages of the term flux, both with rigorous mathematical frameworks. In the fields of heat transport and mass transport (fluid dynamics, hydrogeology, chemical engineering), flux is defined as the amount of a given quantity that flows through a unit area per unit time (Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot, Transport Phenomenon, 1960). Flux in this definition is a vector. In the field of electromagnetism, flux is usually the integral of a vector quantity o ...

Including:

• Flux - Flux definition and theorems
• Flux - Thermal systems
• Flux - Chemical diffusion
• Flux - Flux definition and theorems
• Flux - Maxwell's equations
• Flux - Poynting vector

Read more here: » Flux: Encyclopedia - Flux

Dextromethorphan (DM or less commonly, DXM) is an antitussive drug that is found in many over-the-counter cold and cough preparations. Dextromethorphan - Chemistry. Dextromethorphan is a salt of the methyl ether dextrorotatory isomer of levorphanol, a narcotic analgesic. It is chemically named as 3-methoxy-17-methyl-9(alpha), 13(alpha), 14(alpha)-morphinan hydrobromide monohydrate. DM occurs as white crystals, is sparingly soluble in water, and freely soluble in alcohol. The drug is dex ...

Including:

• Dextromethorphan - Chemistry
• Dextromethorphan - Indications
• Dextromethorphan - Pharmacodynamics
• Dextromethorphan - Clinical pharmacology
• Dextromethorphan - History

Read more here: » Dextromethorphan: Encyclopedia - Dextromethorphan

All bisphosphonate drugs share a common "backbone": The two PO3 (phosphate) groups covalently linked to carbon determine both the name "bisphosphonate" and the function of the drugs. The long side chain (R2 in the diagram) determines the chemical properties, the mode of action and the strength of bisphosphonate drugs. The short side chain (R1) mainly in ...

See also:

Bisphosphonate, Bisphosphonate - Basic structure, Bisphosphonate - Pharmacokinetics, Bisphosphonate - Side effects, Bisphosphonate - Classes of bisphosphonates, Bisphosphonate - Non-nitrogenous, Bisphosphonate - Nitrogenous, Bisphosphonate - Mechanism of action, Bisphosphonate - Non-nitrogenous, Bisphosphonate - Nitrogenous

Read more here: » Bisphosphonate: Encyclopedia II - Bisphosphonate - Basic structure

Statin - Groups. Two groups of statins exist: Fermentation-derived: lovastatin, simvastatin and pravastatin Synthetic: fluvastatin, atorvastatin, cerivastatin and rosuvastatin Fermentation-derived statins appear more effective in reducing LDL, but no clear explanation has accounted for this phenomenon. Statin - Mode of action. Statins act by competitively inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme of the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, the body's metabolic pa ...

See also:

Statin, Statin - Members, Statin - Uses, Statin - Pharmacology, Statin - Groups, Statin - Mode of action, Statin - Non-cholesterol related actions, Statin - Safety, Statin - History

Read more here: » Statin: Encyclopedia II - Statin - Pharmacology

There are a few well-known toxins that affect the process of oxidative phosphorylation and can lead to breakdown of the chain: Cyanide interrupts the electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion because it binds more strongly than oxygen to the Fe3+ (ferric iron ion) in cytochrome a3, preventing this cytochrome from combining electrons with oxygen. Oligomycin functions by inhibiting the ATP synthase protein and preventing it from generating ATP from the protons. CCCP ...

See also:

Oxidative phosphorylation, Oxidative phosphorylation - Inhibitors, Oxidative phosphorylation - Reactive oxygen species

Read more here: » Oxidative phosphorylation: Encyclopedia II - Oxidative phosphorylation - Inhibitors

Following oral administration, DXM is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, where it enters the bloodstream and crosses the blood-brain barrier. The first-pass through the hepatic portal vein results in some of the drug being metabolized into an active metabolite of dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, the 3-hydroxy derivative of dextromethorphan. The therapeutic activity of dextromethorphan is believed to be caused by both the drug and this metabolite. Dextromethorphan is predominantly metabolized by the liver, by various hepatic enzy ...

See also:

Dextromethorphan, Dextromethorphan - Chemistry, Dextromethorphan - Indications, Dextromethorphan - Pharmacodynamics, Dextromethorphan - Clinical pharmacology, Dextromethorphan - History

Read more here: » Dextromethorphan: Encyclopedia II - Dextromethorphan - Clinical pharmacology

Despite the wide variety of known antibiotics, less than 1% of antimicrobial agents have any medical or commercial value. The most commonly known antibiotic, Penicillin has a highly selective toxicity and therapeutic index (as eukaryotic animal cells do not contain peptidoglycan, they are usually unaffected by it). This is not so for many antibiotics. Others simply lack advantage over the antibiotics already in use, or have no other practical applications. In order to identify the useful antibiotics, a process of screening is often em ...

See also:

Production of antibiotics, Production of antibiotics - Identifying useful antibiotics, Production of antibiotics - Industrial production techniques, Production of antibiotics - Strains used for production

Read more here: » Production of antibiotics: Encyclopedia II - Production of antibiotics - Identifying useful antibiotics

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is an enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway (see image), a metabolic pathway that supplies energy to a number of cells (most notably erythrocytes), and maintains the level of the co-enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The NADPH in turn maintains the level of glutathione in these cells that helps protect the red blood cells against oxidative damage. G6PD converts glucose-6-phosphate into 6-phosphoglucono-δ-lact ...

See also:

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - Signs and symptoms, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - Diagnosis, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - Classification, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - Pathophysiology, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - Epidemiology, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - Treatment

Read more here: » Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: Encyclopedia II - Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency - Pathophysiology

Regulation of HMG-CoA reductase is achieved at several levels: transcription, translation, degradation and phosphorylation. HMG-CoA reductase - Transcription of the reductase gene. Transcription of the reductase gene is enhanced by the sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP). This protein binds to the sterol regulatory element (SRE), located on the 5' end of the reductase gene. When SREBP is inactive, it is bound to the ER or nuclear membrane. When cholesterol levels fall, SREBP is ...

See also:

HMG-CoA reductase, HMG-CoA reductase - Importance, HMG-CoA reductase - Regulation, HMG-CoA reductase - Transcription of the reductase gene, HMG-CoA reductase - Translation of mRNA, HMG-CoA reductase - Degradation of reductase, HMG-CoA reductase - Phosphorylation of reductase, HMG-CoA reductase - External link

Read more here: » HMG-CoA reductase: Encyclopedia II - HMG-CoA reductase - Regulation

The citric acid cycle takes place within the mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes, and within the cytoplasm in prokaryotes. Fuel molecule catabolism (including glycolysis) produces acetyl-CoA, a two-carbon acetyl group bound to coenzyme A. Acetyl-CoA is the main input to the citric acid cycle. Citrate is both the first and the last product of the cycle (Fig 1), and is regenerated by the condensation of oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA. The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is: Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD+ + ...

See also:

Citric acid cycle, Citric acid cycle - History, Citric acid cycle - Location of cycle and inputs and outputs, Citric acid cycle - Regulation, Citric acid cycle - Major metabolic pathways converging on the TCA cycle

Read more here: » Citric acid cycle: Encyclopedia II - Citric acid cycle - Location of cycle and inputs and outputs

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy. It is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown from glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion to be fully oxidised by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2. The reducing potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP via an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by cellular ...

See also:

Cellular respiration, Cellular respiration - Aerobic respiration, Cellular respiration - Glycolysis, Cellular respiration - Oxidative decarboxylation, Cellular respiration - Krebs cycle/Citric Acid cycle, Cellular respiration - Oxidative phosphorylation, Cellular respiration - Theoretical yields, Cellular respiration - Anaerobic respiration

Read more here: » Cellular respiration: Encyclopedia II - Cellular respiration - Aerobic respiration

The individual atoms of urea come from carbon dioxide, water, aspartate and ammonia in a metabolic pathway known as the urea cycle, an anabolic process. This expenditure of energy is necessary because ammonia, a common metabolic waste product, is toxic and must be neutralized. Urea production occurs in the liver and is under the regulatory control of N-acetylglutamate. Aquatic animals do not produce urea; living in an abundant supply of water, they can simply excrete ammonia immediately as it is produced. Birds, with more sever ...

See also:

Urea, Urea - Physiology, Urea - Discovery, Urea - Commercial Production, Urea - Industrial use, Urea - Laboratory use, Urea - Medical use, Urea - Drug use, Urea - Physiological diagnosis, Urea - Other diagnostic use

Read more here: » Urea: Encyclopedia II - Urea - Physiology

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy. It is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown from glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2. The reducing potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP via an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by cellular ...

See also:

Cellular respiration, Cellular respiration - Aerobic respiration, Cellular respiration - Glycolysis, Cellular respiration - Oxidative decarboxylation, Cellular respiration - Krebs cycle/Citric Acid cycle, Cellular respiration - Oxidative phosphorylation, Cellular respiration - Theoretical yields, Cellular respiration - Anaerobic respiration

Read more here: » Cellular respiration: Encyclopedia II - Cellular respiration - Aerobic respiration

An example of the second definition of flux is the magnitude of a river's current, that is, the amount of water that flows through a cross-section of the river each second. The amount of sunlight that lands on a patch of ground each second is also a kind of flux. To better understand the concept of flux in Electromagnetism, imagine a butterfly net. The amount of air moving through the net at any given instant in time is the flux. If the wind speed is high, then the flux through the net is large. If the net is made bigger, then the flux would ...

See also:

Flux, Flux - Flux definition and theorems, Flux - Thermal systems, Flux - Chemical diffusion, Flux - Flux definition and theorems, Flux - Maxwell's equations, Flux - Poynting vector

Read more here: » Flux: Encyclopedia II - Flux - Flux definition and theorems