messenger RNA

Definition and meaning of mRNA, messenger RNA:

mRNA (messenger RNA) - an RNA molecule that encodes the amino acid sequence of a protein. It is the mediating template between DNA and proteins. The encoded information from a particular gene is transferred from a strand of DNA by the construction of a complementary template strand of RNA (mRNA) through the transcription process. Next, three nucleotide segments of RNA, called tRNA (transfer RNA), which are attached to specific amino acids, match up with the template strand of mRNA to order the correct sequence of amino acids. These amino acids are then bonded together to form a protein a in a process, called translation. Translation occurs in the ribosomes, which are composed of proteins and a third kind of RNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

(Source: US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) )

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The central dogma of molecular biology was first enunciated by Francis Crick in 1958 and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970. The precise definition is: The central dogma of molecular biology deals with the detailed residue-by-residue transfer of sequential information. It states that such information cannot be transferred from protein to either protein or nucleic acid. In other words, ...

Including:

• Central dogma of molecular biology - Transcription
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Splicing
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Translation
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Replication
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Alterations to the central dogma
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Flow from RNA to DNA
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Viruses with RNA-only genomes
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Prions
• Central dogma of molecular biology - Criticisms of the use of the central dogma as a research strategy

Read more here: » Central dogma of molecular biology: Encyclopedia - Central dogma of molecular biology

Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized from cholesterol by the enzyme aldosterone synthase. It is formed in the outer-section (zona glomerulosa) of the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland, as the cells of other sections don't have the corresponding enzyme. It is the sole endogenous member of the class of mineralocorticoids. It helps regulate the body's electrolyte balance by acting on the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR). It diminishes the excretion of sodium (Na+) ions and therefore, water and stimulates th ...

Including:

• Aldosterone - Aldosterone and the kidney
• Aldosterone - Control of aldosterone release

Read more here: » Aldosterone: Encyclopedia - Aldosterone

Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used specifically for treating viral infections. Like antibiotics, specific antivirals are used for specific viruses. Antiviral drugs are one class of antimicrobials, a larger group which also includes antibiotics, anti-fungal and anti-parasitic drugs. They are relatively harmless to the host, and therefore can be used to treat infections. Most of the antivirals now available are designed to help deal with HIV; herpesvirus, which are best known for causing cold sores but actually cover ...

Including:

• Antiviral drug - History
• Antiviral drug - Development of antiviral drugs
• Antiviral drug - Antiviral drug design strategies

Read more here: » Antiviral drug: Encyclopedia - Antiviral drug

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and most viruses). DNA is a long polymer of nucleotides and encodes the sequence of the amino acid residues in proteins using the genetic code, a triplet code of nucleotides. In complex cells (eukaryotes), such as those from plants, animals, fungi and protists, most of the DNA is located in the cell nucleus. By contrast, in simpler cells called prokaryotes (the eubacter ...

Including:

• DNA - Overview
• DNA - DNA in practice
• DNA - DNA in crime
• DNA - DNA in computation
• DNA - Overview of molecular structure
• DNA - The role of the sequence
• DNA - DNA replication
• DNA - Mechanical properties relevant to biology
• DNA - Strands association and dissociation
• DNA - Circular DNA
• DNA - Great length versus tiny breadth
• DNA - Entropic stretching behavior
• DNA - Different helix geometries
• DNA - Non-helical forms
• DNA - Direction of DNA strands
• DNA - Chemical nomenclature 5' and 3'
• DNA - Sense and antisense
• DNA - Distinction between sense and antisense strands
• DNA - As viewed by topologists
• DNA - Single-stranded DNA ssDNA and repair of mutations
• DNA - The history of DNA research
• DNA - First isolation of DNA
• DNA - Establishing a link between heritable traits and chromosomes
• DNA - Discovery of the structure of DNA
• DNA - Bibliography

Read more here: » DNA: Encyclopedia - DNA

The 5' cap is a specially altered dinucleotide end to the 5' end of messenger RNA as found in eukaryotes. The process of 5' capping is vital to translation and stability of the messenger RNA, and is a highly regulated process which occurs in the nucleus. 5' cap - 5' Cap Structure. The 5' cap is found on the 5' end of an mRNA molecule and consists of a guanosine nucleotide connected to the mRNA via an unusual 5' to 5' triphosphate linkage. Further modifications include the methylation of the guanosine, and t ...

Including:

• 5' cap - 5' Cap Structure
• 5' cap - Capping Process
• 5' cap - 5' Capping Targeting
• 5' cap - 5' Cap Function
• 5' cap - Related Articles

Read more here: » 5' cap: Encyclopedia - 5' cap

Transcription is the process through which a DNA sequence is enzymatically copied by an RNA polymerase to produce a complementary RNA. Or, in other words, the transfer of genetic information from DNA into RNA. In the case of protein-encoding DNA, transcription is the beginning of the process that ultimately leads to the translation of the genetic code (via the mRNA intermediate) into a functional peptide or protein. Transcription has some proofreading mechanisms, but they are fewer and less effective than the controls for DNA; therefore, t ...

Including:

• Transcription genetics - Prokaryotic transcription
• Transcription genetics - Initiation
• Transcription genetics - Elongation
• Transcription genetics - Termination
• Transcription genetics - Eukaryotic transcription
• Transcription genetics - Initiation
• Transcription genetics - Transcription Process
• Transcription genetics - Measuring and detecting transcription
• Transcription genetics - History
• Transcription genetics - Terminology
• Transcription genetics - Reverse transcription

Read more here: » Transcription genetics: Encyclopedia - Transcription genetics

Influenza (or as it is commonly known, the flu or the grippe) is a contagious disease of the upper airways and the lungs, caused by an RNA virus of the orthomyxoviridae family. It rapidly spreads around the world in seasonal epidemics, imposing considerable economic burden, in the form of health care costs and lost productivity. Three influenza pandemics in the 20th century, each following a major genetic ...

Including:

• Influenza - Types
• Influenza - Genetics
• Influenza - History
• Influenza - Known epidemics and pandemics - overview
• Influenza - Symptoms
• Influenza - Variability
• Influenza - Flu season
• Influenza - Prevention
• Influenza - Treatment
• Influenza - Avian influenza
• Influenza - Sources

Read more here: » Influenza: Encyclopedia - Influenza

Control of operon genes is a type of gene regulation that enables organisms to regulate the expression of various genes depending on environmental conditions. Operon regulation can be either negative or positive. Negative regulation involves the binding of a repressor to the operator to prevent transcription. In negative inducible operons, a regulatory repressor protein is normally bound to the operator and it prevents the transcription of the genes on the operon. If an inducer molecule is present, it binds to repressor and changes its conformation so that it is unable to bind to the operator. This allows fo ...

See also:

Operon, Operon - The operon as a unit of transcription, Operon - Promoter, Operon - Operator, Operon - Operon gene regulation, Operon - The lac operon, Operon - Predicting the number and organization of operons

Read more here: » Operon: Encyclopedia II - Operon - Operon gene regulation

Promoters represent critical elements that can work in concert with other regulatory regions (enhancers, silencers, boundary elements/insulators) to direct the level of transcription of a given gene. The usage of cannonical sequence for a promoter is problematic, and should be clarified. Cannonical implies perfect, in some sense. In the case of a transcription factor binding site, then there may be a single sequence which binds the protein most strongly under specified cellular conditions. This might be called cannoncial. However, nat ...

See also:

Promoter, Promoter - Promoter elements, Promoter - Promoter sequences, Promoter - Prokaryotic promoters, Promoter - Eukaryotic promoters, Promoter - Binding, Promoter - Diseases Associated with Aberrant Promoter Function

Read more here: » Promoter: Encyclopedia II - Promoter - Promoter elements

There are three genera of the virus, identified by antigenic differences in their nucleoprotein and matrix protein: Influenza A viruses are known to infect humans, other mammals and birds (see also avian influenza) Influenza B viruses are known to infect humans and seals Influenza C viruses are known to infect humans and pigs [1]. The A type of influenza virus is the type most likely to cause epidemics and pandemics. This is because the influenza A virus can undergo antigenic shift and present a n ...

See also:

Influenza, Influenza - Types, Influenza - Genetics, Influenza - History, Influenza - Known epidemics and pandemics - overview, Influenza - Symptoms, Influenza - Variability, Influenza - Flu season, Influenza - Prevention, Influenza - Treatment, Influenza - Avian influenza, Influenza - Sources

Read more here: » Influenza: Encyclopedia II - Influenza - Types

By 1959, experiments by Oswald Avery, Francis Crick, James D. Watson, and others had shown DNA to be the molecule of genetic information. It was not known, however, how DNA was replicated, how DNA directed the expression of protiens, or what role RNA had in these processes. Nirenberg teamed up with Heinrich J. Matthaei at the National Institutes of Health to answer these questions. They produced RNA comprised solely of uracil, a nucleotide that only occurs in RNA. They then added this synthetic poly-uracil RNA into a cell-free extract of Esc ...

See also:

Marshall Warren Nirenberg, Marshall Warren Nirenberg - Research, Marshall Warren Nirenberg - Biography

Read more here: » Marshall Warren Nirenberg: Encyclopedia II - Marshall Warren Nirenberg - Research

In many genes, each exon contains part of the open reading frame (ORF) that codes for a specific portion of the complete protein, however, the term exon is often misused to refer only to coding sequences for the final protein. This is not true since many noncoding exons are known in human genes (Zhang 1998). Below is a diagram of an heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA), which is an unedited mRNA transcript, or pre-mRNAs. Exons can include both sequence that code for amino acids (red) and untranslated sequences (grey). Stretches of unused ...

See also:

Exon, Exon - Function, Exon - Experimental approaches that utilise exons

Read more here: » Exon: Encyclopedia II - Exon - Function

Transcription genetics - Initiation. The followings steps occur, in order, for transcription initiation: RNA polymerase (RNAP) recognizes and specifically binds to the promoter region on DNA. At this stage, the DNA is double-stranded ("closed"). This RNAP/wound-DNA structure is referred to as the closed complex. The DNA is unwound and becomes single-stranded ("open") in the vicinity of the initiation site (defined as +1). This RNAP/unwound-DNA structure is called the open complexSee also:

Transcription genetics, Transcription genetics - Prokaryotic transcription, Transcription genetics - Initiation, Transcription genetics - Elongation, Transcription genetics - Termination, Transcription genetics - Eukaryotic transcription, Transcription genetics - Initiation, Transcription genetics - Transcription Process, Transcription genetics - Measuring and detecting transcription, Transcription genetics - History, Transcription genetics - Terminology, Transcription genetics - Reverse transcription

Read more here: » Transcription genetics: Encyclopedia II - Transcription genetics - Prokaryotic transcription

Estradiol, like other sex steroids, is derived from cholesterol. After side chain cleavage and either utilizing the delta-5 pathway or the delta-4 pathway androstenedione is the key intermediary. Androstendione is either converted to testosterone which in turn undergoes aromatization to estradiol, or, alternatively, androstendione is aromatized to estrone which is converted to estradiol. Co ...

See also:

Estradiol, Estradiol - Synthesis, Estradiol - Production, Estradiol - Mechanism of action, Estradiol - Effects, Estradiol - Role in sexual differentiation, Estradiol - Therapy, Estradiol - Hormone replacement therapy, Estradiol - Blocking estrogens

Read more here: » Estradiol: Encyclopedia II - Estradiol - Synthesis

In some cell types testosterone interacts directly with androgen receptors while in others testosterone is converted by 5-alpha-reductase to dihydrotestosterone, an even more potent agonist for androgen receptor activation. Examples are derivatives of the Wolffian duct for the former, and derivatives of the urogenital sinus, the urogenital tubercle, and hair follicles for the latter. The first known mechanism of action for androgen receptors was direct regulation of gene transcription. After androgen binds to an androgen receptor, res ...

See also:

Androgen receptor, Androgen receptor - Structure, Androgen receptor - Gene, Androgen receptor - Function, Androgen receptor - AR deficiencies, Androgen receptor - Reference

Read more here: » Androgen receptor: Encyclopedia II - Androgen receptor - Function

This section presents an introductory and therefore incomplete overview of DNA. Genes can be loosely viewed as the organism's "cookbook" or "blueprint"; A strand of DNA contains genes, areas that regulate genes, and areas that either have no function, or a function which we do not (yet) know: also see last bullet point in this section for the difference between DNA and RNA; DNA is organized as two complementary strands, head-to-toe, with bonds between them that can be "unzipped" like a zipper, separating the st ...

See also:

DNA, DNA - Overview, DNA - DNA pairing, DNA - DNA in practice, DNA - DNA in crime, DNA - DNA in computation, DNA - Overview of molecular structure, DNA - The role of the sequence, DNA - DNA replication, DNA - Mechanical properties relevant to biology, DNA - Strands association and dissociation, DNA - Circular DNA, DNA - Great length versus tiny breadth, DNA - Entropic stretching behavior, DNA - Different helix geometries, DNA - Non-helical forms, DNA - Direction of DNA strands, DNA - Chemical nomenclature 5' and 3', DNA - Sense and antisense, DNA - Distinction between sense and antisense strands, DNA - As viewed by topologists, DNA - Single-stranded DNA ssDNA and repair of mutations, DNA - The history of DNA research, DNA - First isolation of DNA, DNA - Establishing a link between heritable traits and chromosomes, DNA - Discovery of the structure of DNA

Read more here: » DNA: Encyclopedia II - DNA - Overview

tRNA has primary structure (the order of nucleotides from 5' to 3'), secondary structure (usually visualized as the cloverleaf structure), and tertiary structure (all tRNAs have a similar L-shaped 3D structure that allows them to fit into the P and A sites of the ribosome). The primary structure was reported in 1969 by Robert W. Holley. The secondary and tertiary structures were derived from X-ray crystallographic studies reported independently in 1974 by American and British research groups heade ...

See also:

Transfer RNA, Transfer RNA - Structure of tRNA, Transfer RNA - Features, Transfer RNA - Anticodon, Transfer RNA - Aminoacylation, Transfer RNA - tRNA genes

Read more here: » Transfer RNA: Encyclopedia II - Transfer RNA - Structure of tRNA

Because of the inherent expense and difficulty in obtaining extrinsic evidence for many genes, it is also necessary to resort to ab initio gene finding, in which genomic DNA sequence alone is systematically searched for certain telltale signs of protein-coding genes. These signs can be broadly categorized as either signals, specific sequences that indicate the presence of a gene nearby, or content, statistical properties of protein-coding sequence itself. Ab initio gene finding might be more accurately characterized as gene prediction, since extrinsic evidence is generally require ...

See also:

Gene prediction, Gene prediction - Extrinsic Approaches, Gene prediction - Ab Initio Approaches, Gene prediction - Comparative Genomics Approaches

Read more here: » Gene prediction: Encyclopedia II - Gene prediction - Ab Initio Approaches