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The letter B probably started as a pictogram of the floorplan of a house in Egyptian hieroglyphs or the Proto-semitic alphabet. By 1500 BC, the Phoenician alphabet's letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms, which appeared in both the angular and more rounded forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the Hebrew beth. When the Ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they changed its name to beta and turned the letter upside-down and later added a second loop. In earlier Greek inscriptions, the l ...

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B, B - History, B - Typography, B - Usage, B - Alternative representations, B - Computing, B - Meanings for B

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(main article with table of particles: Standard Model) The Standard Model of particle physics contains 12 flavours of elementary fermions ("matter particles"), plus their corresponding antiparticles, as well as elementary bosons ("radiation particles") that mediate the forces and the still undiscovered Higgs boson. However, the Standard Model is widely considered to be a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one, since it is fundamentally incompatible with Einstein's general relativity. There are likely to be hypot ...

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Elementary particle, Elementary particle - Standard Model, Elementary particle - Fundamental fermions, Elementary particle - Fundamental bosons, Elementary particle - Beyond the Standard Model, Elementary particle - Supersymmetry, Elementary particle - String theory, Elementary particle - Preon theory, Elementary particle - Links and References, Elementary particle - Reference

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Cosmic rays, also known as cosmic particles, were initially believed to originate in radioactive isotopes in the ground. This theory was disproven in 1912 by Victor Hess, who in 1936 received the Nobel prize in physics for his work. Hess used electroscope measurements taken at different altitudes from a hot air balloon to conclude that the radiation was cosmic in origin. Hess further showed that the sun could not be the primary source of cosmic rays by tak ...

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Cosmic ray, Cosmic ray - Detection, Cosmic ray - History of cosmic rays, Cosmic ray - Time Dependence, Cosmic ray - Lightning, Cosmic ray - Cosmic Rays And Fiction, Cosmic ray - Types of cosmic radiation

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The Einstein field equation, when fully written out as a sytem of partial differential equations, takes the form of a rather complicated system of coupled, nonlinear partial differential equations. As such, in general, it is very hard to solve. Nonetheless, several effective techniques for obtaining exact solutions are available. The simplest involves imposing symmetry conditions on the metric tensor, such as stationarity (symmetry under time translation) or axisymmetry (symmetry under rotation about some symmetry axis). With s ...

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Exact solutions in general relativity, Exact solutions in general relativity - Introduction, Exact solutions in general relativity - Difficulties with the definition, Exact solutions in general relativity - Types of exact solution, Exact solutions in general relativity - Constructing solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Existence of solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Global stability theorems, Exact solutions in general relativity - The positive energy theorem, Exact solutions in general relativity - Examples

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Many well-known exact solutions belong to one of several types, depending upon the intended physical interpretation of the stress-energy tensor: vacuum solutions: Tab = 0; these describe regions in which no matter or nongravitational fields are present, electrovacuum solutions: Tab must arise entirely from an electromagnetic field which solves the source-free Maxwell equation ...

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Exact solutions in general relativity, Exact solutions in general relativity - Difficulties with the definition, Exact solutions in general relativity - Types of exact solution, Exact solutions in general relativity - Constructing solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Existence of solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Global stability theorems, Exact solutions in general relativity - The positive energy theorem, Exact solutions in general relativity - Examples

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Bravo represents the letter B in the NATO phonetic alphabet. In international Morse code the letter B is DahDitDitDit: - · · · In Braille the letter B is represented as ⠃ (in Unicode), the dot pattern, X. X. .. B - Computing. In Unicode the capital B is codepoint U+0042 and the lowercase b is U+0062. The ASCII code for capital B is 66 and for lowercase b is 98; or in binary 01000010 and 01100010, correspondingly. The EBCDIC code ...

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B, B - History, B - Typography, B - Usage, B - Alternative representations, B - Computing, B - Meanings for B

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Given the difficulty of constructing explicit small families of solutions, much less presenting something like a "general" solution to the Einstein field equation, or even a "general" solution to the vacuum field equation, a very reasonable approach is to try to find qualitative properties which hold for all solutions, or at least for all vacuum solutions. One of the most basic questions one can ask is: do solutions exist, and if so, how many? To get started, we should adopt a suitable initial value formulation of ...

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Exact solutions in general relativity, Exact solutions in general relativity - Difficulties with the definition, Exact solutions in general relativity - Types of exact solution, Exact solutions in general relativity - Constructing solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Existence of solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Global stability theorems, Exact solutions in general relativity - The positive energy theorem, Exact solutions in general relativity - Examples

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Because of the metaphysical connotations of the word "cosmic", the very name of these particles enables their misinterpretation by the public, giving them an aura of mysterious powers. Were they merely referred to as "high-speed protons and atomic nuclei" this would not be so. Hence cosmic rays have been used as a catchall, mostly in comics (notably the Marvel Comics group the Fantastic Four), as a source for mutation and the ...

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Cosmic ray, Cosmic ray - Detection, Cosmic ray - History of cosmic rays, Cosmic ray - Significance to Space Travel, Cosmic ray - Time Dependence, Cosmic ray - Lightning, Cosmic ray - Cosmic Rays And Fiction, Cosmic ray - Types of cosmic radiation

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Main article: List of Brazilian models List of Brazilians - Female. Gianne Albertoni Michelle Alves Alessandra Ambrosio Ana Beatriz Barros Letícia Birkheuer Marcelle Bittar Carolina Bittencourt Luiza Brunet Yasmin Brunet Gisele Bündchen Jeisa Chiminazzo Daniella Cicarelli Luciana Curtis Cintia Dicker Bruna Erhardt Isabella Fiorentino Isabeli Fontana< ...

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List of Brazilians, List of Brazilians - Actors, List of Brazilians - Architects and urbanists, List of Brazilians - Artists, List of Brazilians - Diplomats, List of Brazilians - Film directors, List of Brazilians - Explorers and discoverers, List of Brazilians - Foreigners who explored or discovered in Brazil, List of Brazilians - Fashion Designers, List of Brazilians - Heroes and historical figures, List of Brazilians - Intellectuals and thinkers, List of Brazilians - Models, List of Brazilians - Female, List of Brazilians - Male, List of Brazilians - Monarchs, List of Brazilians - Music, List of Brazilians - Classic composers, List of Brazilians - Politicians, List of Brazilians - Religious leaders, List of Brazilians - Reporters and TV hosts, List of Brazilians - Sports, List of Brazilians - Writers and Poets, List of Brazilians - Science and technology, List of Brazilians - Foreign scientists and engineers who lived in Brazil, List of Brazilians - Others

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Main article: List of Brazilians in music Tim Maia, singer and composer Arnaldo Antunes, singer and composer Guilherme Arantes, pianist, singer and composer Gustavo Assis-Brasil, composer, virtuoso guitar player Waldir Azevedo, composer, virtuoso cavaquinho player Jacob do Bandolim, composer, virtuoso mandolinist Arnaldo Baptista (1948-), singer, musician and composer, former member of Os Mutantes Adoniran Barbosa (1912-1982), singer and composer Bade ...

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List of Brazilians, List of Brazilians - Actors, List of Brazilians - Architects and urbanists, List of Brazilians - Artists, List of Brazilians - Diplomats, List of Brazilians - Film directors, List of Brazilians - Explorers and discoverers, List of Brazilians - Foreigners who explored or discovered in Brazil, List of Brazilians - Fashion Designers, List of Brazilians - Heroes and historical figures, List of Brazilians - Intellectuals and thinkers, List of Brazilians - Models, List of Brazilians - Female, List of Brazilians - Male, List of Brazilians - Monarchs, List of Brazilians - Music, List of Brazilians - Classic composers, List of Brazilians - Politicians, List of Brazilians - Religious leaders, List of Brazilians - Reporters and TV hosts, List of Brazilians - Sports, List of Brazilians - Writers and Poets, List of Brazilians - Science and technology, List of Brazilians - Foreign scientists and engineers who lived in Brazil, List of Brazilians - Others

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We can imagine "disturbing" the gravitational field outside some isolated massive object by "sending in some radiation from infinity". We can ask: what happens as the incoming radiation interacts with the ambient field? In the approach of classical perturbation theory, we can start with Minkowksi vacuum (or another very simple solution, such as the de Sitter lambdavacuum), introduce very small metric perturbations, and retain only terms up to some order in a suitable perturbation expansion-- somewhat like evaluating a kind of T ...

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Exact solutions in general relativity, Exact solutions in general relativity - Difficulties with the definition, Exact solutions in general relativity - Types of exact solution, Exact solutions in general relativity - Constructing solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Existence of solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Global stability theorems, Exact solutions in general relativity - The positive energy theorem, Exact solutions in general relativity - Examples

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Take any Lorentzian manifold, compute its Einstein tensor Gab, which is a purely mathematical operation, divide by 8π, and declare the resulting symmetric second rank tensor field to be the stress-energy tensor Tab. If this procedure were valid, any Lorentzian manifold would be a "solution" of the Einstein field equation, and general relativity would be useless! After all, a crucial demand upon any physical theory is surely that, ...

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Exact solutions in general relativity, Exact solutions in general relativity - Difficulties with the definition, Exact solutions in general relativity - Types of exact solution, Exact solutions in general relativity - Constructing solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Existence of solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Global stability theorems, Exact solutions in general relativity - The positive energy theorem, Exact solutions in general relativity - Examples

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In English and most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter b denotes the voiced bilabial plosive (IPA /b/), as in bib. In English it is sometimes "silent", as in debt or comb. In medial position in Spanish it denotes the voiced bilabial fricative (IPA /β/). In Estonian, Icelandic, and in Chinese transcription, B is not voiced, but is still contrasted to P, which is a geminate See also:

B, B - History, B - Typography, B - Usage, B - Alternative representations, B - Computing, B - Meanings for B

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Along its history, many Unicamp students and faculty became notable in Science, Politics and Arts. This is a partial list of notable Unicamp people. Aloízio Mercadante, economist and politician, senator. Cassio Raposo do Amaral, plastic surgeon César Lattes, experimental physicist, co-discoverer of the pi meson (pion) Hélio de Oliveira Santos, physician, politician, current mayor of Campinas José Aristodemo Pinotti, state secretary of health and of education, federal represen ...

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Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Colleges and schools, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Admission, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Administration, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - List of Unicamp Rectors, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Unicamp Honoris Causa Doctors, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Some notable alumni and faculty, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - External link

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Now suppose that the potential V(φ) has a minimum not at φ = 0 but at some non-zero value φ0. This can happen if one writes (for example) V(φ) = μ2φ2 + λφ4 and then sets μ to an imaginary value. In this case, one says that the Lagrangian exhibits spontaneous symmetry breaking. The non-zero value of φ is called the vacuum expectation value of φ. In the Standard Model, this n ...

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Yukawa interaction, Yukawa interaction - The action, Yukawa interaction - Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Yukawa interaction - Majorana form, Yukawa interaction - Feynman rules

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It's also possible to have a Yukawa interaction between a scalar and a Majorana field. In fact, the Yukawa interaction involving a scalar and a Dirac spinor can be thought of as a Yukawa interaction involving a scalar with two Majorana spinors of the same mass. Broken out in terms of the two chiral Majorana spinors, one has where g is a complex coupling constant and m is a complex number. ...

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Yukawa interaction, Yukawa interaction - The action, Yukawa interaction - Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Yukawa interaction - Majorana form, Yukawa interaction - Feynman rules

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As of August, 2005 the University Council had granted 24 honoris causa doctorate in recognition of valuable contribution made to society by people through their scientific or humanitarian work. This is the full list of the granted people (the date in parentheses designates when the title was delivered). Oscar Niemeyer (18 April 2005) Cesar Lattes (15 October 2004) Otto Richard Gottlieb (21 November 2000) Dom Pedro Maria Casaldáglia Pla (24 October 2000) Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns (20 October 200 ...

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Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Colleges and schools, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Admission, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Administration, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - List of Unicamp Rectors, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Unicamp Honoris Causa Doctors, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Some notable alumni and faculty, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - External link

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As most Brazilian universities, Unicamp's administration is centralized on the figure of a rector. Unicamp rectors have a mandate of 4 years, and are chosen by the state governor from a list of 3 candidates. The candidate list is formed by the 3 most voted by the university community (staff, faculty and students), and the governor has always chosen the most voted candidate as rector. Zeferino Vaz, who drove the installation and establishment of the ...

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Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Colleges and schools, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Admission, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Administration, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - List of Unicamp Rectors, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Unicamp Honoris Causa Doctors, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Some notable alumni and faculty, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - External link

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Noteworthy examples of vacuum solutions, electrovacuum solutions, and so forth, are listed in specialized articles (see below). These solutions contain at most one contribution to the energy-momentum tensor, due to a specific kind of matter or field. However, there are some notable exact solutions which contain two or three contributions, including: Kerr-Newman-NUT-de Sitter solution contains contributions from an electromagnetic field and a positive vacuum energy, as well as a kind of vacuum perturbation of the Kerr vacuum whic ...

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Exact solutions in general relativity, Exact solutions in general relativity - Difficulties with the definition, Exact solutions in general relativity - Types of exact solution, Exact solutions in general relativity - Constructing solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Existence of solutions, Exact solutions in general relativity - Global stability theorems, Exact solutions in general relativity - The positive energy theorem, Exact solutions in general relativity - Examples

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Elementary particle - Supersymmetry. One major extension of the standard model involves supersymmetric particles, abbreviated as sparticles, which include the sleptons, squarks, neutralinos and charginos. Each particle in the Standard Model would have a superpartner whose spin differs by 1/2 from the ordinary particle. In addition, the sparticles are heavier than their ordinary counterparts: they are so heavy that existing particle colliders would not be powerful enough to be able to detect them. However, some physicists believe that sparticl ...

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Elementary particle, Elementary particle - Standard Model, Elementary particle - Fundamental fermions, Elementary particle - Fundamental bosons, Elementary particle - Beyond the Standard Model, Elementary particle - Supersymmetry, Elementary particle - String theory, Elementary particle - Preon theory, Elementary particle - Links and References, Elementary particle - Reference

Read more here: » Elementary particle: Encyclopedia II - Elementary particle - Beyond the Standard Model

The modern lowercase letter b derives from later Roman times, when scribes began omitting the upper loop of the capital. The letter B should not be confused with the visually similar German ß. ...

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B, B - History, B - Typography, B - Usage, B - Alternative representations, B - Computing, B - Meanings for B

Read more here: » B: Encyclopedia II - B - Typography