Regressivism (sometimes called reactionism) is a term used to critically denote policies, ideologies or philosophies that are characterized as advocating a reversal to ones long abandoned or deprecated. At the most fundamental level, what regressivism reacts against is modernity itself. Regressivism is in the same spectrum of political terms as progressivism and conservatism, and is used to designate ideologies that advocate a reversal of past changes, as against conservativismSee also:

Reactionary, Reactionary - Etymology and history, Reactionary - Meanings of reactionary in particular contexts, Reactionary - European reaction, Reactionary - Thermidorian Reaction, Reactionary - The Restored French Monarchy, Reactionary - The clerical philosophers, Reactionary - Metternich and containment, Reactionary - Late 19th and 20th century, Reactionary - American reaction, Reactionary - Sayings, Reactionary - Occurrences of the word reactionary, Reactionary - Miscellanea, Reactionary - Regressivism, Reactionary - Bibliography

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Reactionary comes from the French word réactionnaire, coined in the early 19th century. It was the first of the two words coined (the other being conservative, from the French word conservateur) for the opposition to the French Revolution. "In parliamentary usage, the monarchists were commonly referred to as the Right, although they were often called Reactionaries." (1) This is the first time the word was used to mean "A movement towards the reversal of an existing tendency or state" or a "return to a previous condition of affairs." This meaning i ...

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Reactionary, Reactionary - Etymology and history, Reactionary - Meanings of reactionary in particular contexts, Reactionary - European reaction, Reactionary - Thermidorian Reaction, Reactionary - The Restored French Monarchy, Reactionary - The clerical philosophers, Reactionary - Metternich and containment, Reactionary - Late 19th and 20th century, Reactionary - American reaction, Reactionary - Sayings, Reactionary - Occurrences of the word reactionary, Reactionary - Miscellanea, Reactionary - Regressivism, Reactionary - Bibliography

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Napoleon is credited with introducing the concept of the modern professional conscript army to Europe, an innovation which other states eventually followed. In France, Napoleon is seen by some as having ended lawlessness and disorder in France, and that the Napoleonic Wars also served to export the Revolution to the rest of Europe; the movements of national unification and the rise of the nation state, notably in Italy and Germany, may have been prec ...

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Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources

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Since there never existed an American version of the absolutist monarchies in Europe, it is difficult to define the term "reactionary" in the context of the 18th century in America. One possible interpretation is that the first "reactionaries" in American history were the Tories or Loyalists who supported King George III and the British Crown, while the "revolutionaries" were the Founding Fathers. As with any revolution, the American Revolution consisted of "revolutionary" insurgents fighting against "reactionary" loyalists of the old ...

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Reactionary, Reactionary - Etymology and history, Reactionary - Meanings of reactionary in particular contexts, Reactionary - European reaction, Reactionary - Thermidorian Reaction, Reactionary - The Restored French Monarchy, Reactionary - The clerical philosophers, Reactionary - Metternich and containment, Reactionary - Late 19th and 20th century, Reactionary - American reaction, Reactionary - Sayings, Reactionary - Occurrences of the word reactionary, Reactionary - Miscellanea, Reactionary - Regressivism, Reactionary - Bibliography

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Liberalism - Etymology and historical usage. The word "liberal" derives from the Latin liber ("free"). Livy's History of Rome from Its Foundation describes the struggles for freedom between the plebeian and patrician classes. Largely dormant during the vicissitudes of the Middle Ages, this struggle began again in the Italian Renaissance, in the conflict between the supporters of free city states and the supporters of the Pope. Niccolò Machiavelli, in his Discourses on Livy, laid down the pri ...

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Liberalism, Liberalism - The nature and origins of liberalism: an overview, Liberalism - Etymology and historical usage, Liberalism - Trends within liberalism, Liberalism - Comparative influences, Liberalism - Development of liberal thought, Liberalism - Origins of liberal thought, Liberalism - Revolutionary liberalism, Liberalism - Disputes within liberalism, Liberalism - Liberalism and the great depression, Liberalism - Liberalism against totalitarianism, Liberalism - Liberalism after World War II, Liberalism - The impact of liberalism in the modern world, Liberalism - Contemporary liberalism, Liberalism - A general overview of political positions, Liberalism - Political deviances, Liberalism - Comparative critiques, Liberalism - Liberal conservatism, Liberalism - Neoliberalism, Liberalism - Further reading on liberalism

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Neoconservatives have often been singled out for criticism by opponents of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, many of whom see this invasion as a neoconservative initiative. Neoconservatism - Jacobinism Bolshevism. The "traditional" conservative Claes Ryn has argued that neoconservatives are "a variety of neo-Jacobins." Ryn asserts that true conservatives deny the existence of a universal political and economic philosophy and model that is suitable for all societies and cultures, and believe that a society's institu ...

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Neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservative: Definition and views, Neoconservatism - Usage and general views, Neoconservatism - Overview of Neoconservative views, Neoconservatism - Distinctions from other Conservative movements, Neoconservatism - Shortcomings and criticism of the term Neoconservative, Neoconservatism - Pejorative use, Neoconservatism - History and origins of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Great Depression and World War II, Neoconservatism - New Left, Neoconservatism - Drift away from New Left and Great Society, Neoconservatism - Left-wing roots of Neoconservative organizations?, Neoconservatism - Reagan and the Neoconservatives, Neoconservatism - Neoconservativism under George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, Neoconservatism - Administration of George W. Bush, Neoconservatism - China spy plane incident, Neoconservatism - September 11 2001, Neoconservatism - Bush Doctrine, Neoconservatism - Impact of 2003 Iraq War on Neoconservative philosophy and influence, Neoconservatism - Criticism of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Jacobinism Bolshevism, Neoconservatism - Conflict with Libertarians, Neoconservatism - Disagreement with Business Lobby fiscal conservatives, Neoconservatism - Friction with Paleoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservatism Judaism and Dual Loyalty, Neoconservatism - Related Publications and Institutions, Neoconservatism - Institutions, Neoconservatism - Publications, Neoconservatism - References in Popular Culture

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Napoleon was married twice: March 9, 1796 to Joséphine de Beauharnais. He formally adopted her son Eugène and cousin Stéphanie after assuming the throne to arrange "dynastic" marriages for them. He had her daughter Hortense marry his brother, Louis. Joséphine agreed to divorce so he could remarry in the hopes of producing an heir; it was the first under the Napoleonic Code. March 11, 1810 by proxy to Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria to legitimize the impending birth of their child, then in a ceremony on April 1. ...

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Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources

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The centre of the town is marked by two large squares. The Grande Place and the Place des Heros. These are surrounded by buildings restored to the pre-war conditions. Most notable are the gothic town hall and the cathedral. Vimy Memorial is a memorial just north of the town honouring a major WW I Canadian battle. ...

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Arras, Arras - History, Arras - Sights, Arras - In literature

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France in the nineteenth century - Geography. At the time of the French Revolution, France had expanded to nearly her modern territorial limits. The nineteenth century would complete the process by the annexation of the Duchy of Savoy and the city of Nice (first during the First Empire, and then definitvely in 1860) and some small papal (like Avignon) and foreign possessions. France's territorial limits were greatly extended during the Empire through Napoléon Bonaparte's military conquests and re-organization of ...

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France in the nineteenth century, France in the nineteenth century - France and the French in the 19th century, France in the nineteenth century - Geography, France in the nineteenth century - Demographics, France in the nineteenth century - Language, France in the nineteenth century - Historical Overview, France in the nineteenth century - The Period of the French Revolution, France in the nineteenth century - Napoleon and the French Empire, France in the nineteenth century - The Restoration, France in the nineteenth century - July Monarchy, France in the nineteenth century - Second Republic, France in the nineteenth century - Second Empire, France in the nineteenth century - The Third Republic, France in the nineteenth century - French Colonialism, France in the nineteenth century - Literature, France in the nineteenth century - Art

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List of French people - A-C. Louis Agassiz -- geologist André-Marie Ampère -- scientist François Arago -- physicist, astronomer (and also politician) Antoine Arbogast -- mathematician Jean-Baptiste Biot -- physicist Jean-Charles de Borda -- mathematician, physicist, political scientist Henri Braconnot -- chemist and pharmacist Louis de Broglie -- 1929 Physics Nobel Prize winner. Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot -- physicist ...

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List of French people, List of French people - Actors/actresses, List of French people - A, List of French people - B-C, List of French people - D-L, List of French people - M-V, List of French people - Architects, List of French people - Authors, List of French people - A, List of French people - B, List of French people - C-E, List of French people - F-J, List of French people - L, List of French people - M-N, List of French people - P-R, List of French people - S-Z, List of French people - Aviators, List of French people - Business, List of French people - Chefs, List of French people - Colonial administrators, List of French people - Composers, List of French people - Criminals, List of French people - Dancers, List of French people - Economists, List of French people - Fashion, List of French people - Fictional characters, List of French people - Filmmakers, List of French people - Humorists, List of French people - Monarchs, List of French people - Musicians singers, List of French people - Painters, List of French people - Philosophers, List of French people - Politicians, List of French people - Popes, List of French people - Resistance workers, List of French people - Scientists, List of French people - A-C, List of French people - D-M, List of French people - P-V, List of French people - Sculptors, List of French people - Social Activists, List of French people - Soldiers, List of French people - Sports people, List of French people - Theologians, List of French people - Others

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See also: French language authors, French language poets, French novelists List of French people - A. Marcel Achard -- playwright and scriptwriter Alain-Fournier Jean Anouilh -- 20th century dramatist Guillaume Apollinaire -- (born Russian) poet Antonin Artaud List of French people - B. Honoré de Balzac -- realist author Henri Barbusse Charles Baudelaire, 19th century poet Pierre Beaumarch ...

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List of French people, List of French people - Actors/actresses, List of French people - A, List of French people - B-C, List of French people - D-L, List of French people - M-V, List of French people - Architects, List of French people - Authors, List of French people - A, List of French people - B, List of French people - C-E, List of French people - F-J, List of French people - L, List of French people - M-N, List of French people - P-R, List of French people - S-Z, List of French people - Aviators, List of French people - Business, List of French people - Chefs, List of French people - Colonial administrators, List of French people - Composers, List of French people - Criminals, List of French people - Dancers, List of French people - Economists, List of French people - Fashion, List of French people - Fictional characters, List of French people - Filmmakers, List of French people - Humorists, List of French people - Monarchs, List of French people - Musicians singers, List of French people - Painters, List of French people - Philosophers, List of French people - Politicians, List of French people - Popes, List of French people - Resistance workers, List of French people - Scientists, List of French people - A-C, List of French people - D-M, List of French people - P-V, List of French people - Sculptors, List of French people - Social Activists, List of French people - Soldiers, List of French people - Sports people, List of French people - Theologians, List of French people - Others

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A number of factors led to the revolution; to some extent the old order succumbed to its own rigidity in the face of a changing world; to some extent, it fell to the ambitions of a rising bourgeoisie, allied with aggrieved peasants, wage-earners, and individuals of all classes who had come under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. As the revolution proceeded and as power devolved from the monarchy to legislative bodies, the conflicting interests of these initially allied groups would ...

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French Revolution, French Revolution - Causes, French Revolution - History, French Revolution - The Estates-General of 1789, French Revolution - The National Assembly, French Revolution - The National Constituent Assembly, French Revolution - The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy, French Revolution - The Convention, French Revolution - The Directory, French Revolution - Other revolutions in French history

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The aftermath was to be six weeks of chaos, resulting in the end of the monarchy and the replacement of the Legislative Assembly by the new Convention. During this six weeks, the insurrectionary Paris Commune held more actual power than the Assembly. It demanded and received custody of the royal family, obtained indefinite powers of arrest, and instigated the September Massacres, in which over a 1400 of those arrested were killed in the prisons. The ad hoc executive council of the Assembly had no root in law and little hold on ...

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10th of August French Revolution, 10th of August French Revolution - The context, 10th of August French Revolution - La Patrie en danger, 10th of August French Revolution - Insurrectionism, 10th of August French Revolution - The insurrection, 10th of August French Revolution - The demise of the National Assembly, 10th of August French Revolution - The aftermath, 10th of August French Revolution - External link

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Decapitation - Biblical. Goliath John the Baptist in the Gospels Holofernes in the deuterocanonical Book of Judith Apostle James, traditionally Apostle Paul, traditionally Decapitation - Celtic Saints. Saint Winefred of Flintshire in Wales. Saint Urith of Chittlehampton, Devon, England. Saint Columba of Spain. Saint Columba ...

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Decapitation, Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history, Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world, Decapitation - Some famous persons who have been beheaded, Decapitation - Biblical, Decapitation - Celtic Saints, Decapitation - Islamic, Decapitation - China, Decapitation - England, Decapitation - French Revolution, Decapitation - Italy, Decapitation - Mythological, Decapitation - Scotland, Decapitation - Nazi Germany, Decapitation - Modern era, Decapitation - Other meanings of the word

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A number of factors led to the revolution; to some extent the old order succumbed to its own rigidity in the face of a changing world; to some extent, it fell to the ambitions of a rising bourgeoisie, allied with aggrieved peasants, wage-earners, and individuals of all classes who had come under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. As the revolution proceeded and as power devolved from the monarchy to legislative ...

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French Revolution, French Revolution - Causes, French Revolution - History, French Revolution - The Estates-General of 1789, French Revolution - The National Assembly, French Revolution - The National Constituent Assembly, French Revolution - The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy, French Revolution - The Convention, French Revolution - The Directory, French Revolution - Other revolutions in French history

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He was born Napoleone Buonaparte (in Corsican, Nabolione or Nabulione) in the city of Ajaccio on Corsica on 15 August 1769, only one year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. He later adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte. His family were minor Italian nobility living in Corsica. His father, Carlo Buonaparte, an attorney, was named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI of France in 1778, where he remained for a number of years. The dominant influen ...

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Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources

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Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot. In 1795, Bonaparte was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organized an armed protest against the National Convention on 3 October. Bonaparte was given command of the improvised forces defending the Convention in the Tuileries Palace. He seized artillery pieces with the aid of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, who later became his brother-in-law. He utilized the artillery the following day to repel the attackers. He later boasted that he ...

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Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources

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On July 5 the Assembly declared that the country was "in danger". All citizens able to bear arms, and having already served in the National Guard, were placed in active service; pikes were given to those who were unable to procure guns. Banners were placed in the public squares, bearing the words, "Citizens, the country is in danger!" On July 14 – the third anniversary of the storming of the Bastille – there were massive patriotic festivities. Pétion, dismissed as mayor of Paris for his conduct during the events of June 20 was restored ...

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10th of August French Revolution, 10th of August French Revolution - The context, 10th of August French Revolution - La Patrie en danger, 10th of August French Revolution - Insurrectionism, 10th of August French Revolution - The insurrection, 10th of August French Revolution - The demise of the National Assembly, 10th of August French Revolution - The aftermath, 10th of August French Revolution - External link

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Napoleon was imprisoned and then exiled by the British to the island of Saint Helena (2,800 km off the Bight of Guinea) from 15 October 1815. Whilst there, with a small cadre of followers, he dictated his memoirs and criticized his captors. Sick for much his time on Saint Helena, Napoleon died, on 5 May 1821. His last words were: "France, the Army, head of the Army, Joséphine". Napoléon had asked in his will to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but was buried on Saint Helena. In 1840, his remains were taken to France in the frigate Belle-Poule and entombed in Les Inval ...

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Napoleon I of France, Napoleon I of France - Early life and military career, Napoleon I of France - The victorious general, Napoleon I of France - The whiff of grapeshot, Napoleon I of France - The Italian campaign of 1796–97, Napoleon I of France - The Egyptian expedition of 1798–99, Napoleon I of France - Ruler of France, Napoleon I of France - The coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon I of France - The First Consul, Napoleon I of France - An interlude of peace, Napoleon I of France - Emperor of the French, Napoleon I of France - The Peninsular War and the War of the Fifth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Invasion of Russia, Napoleon I of France - The War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Elba Les Cent-Jours The Hundred Days and Waterloo, Napoleon I of France - Exile in Saint Helena and death, Napoleon I of France - Cause of death, Napoleon I of France - Marriages and children, Napoleon I of France - Legacy, Napoleon I of France - Misconceptions about Napoleon's height, Napoleon I of France - Sources

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Upon the arrival of the victorious insurgents, the Assembly instantly made a proclamation imploring the people to respect justice, their magistrates, the rights of man, liberty, and equality. But the multitude and their chiefs had all the power in their hands, and were determined to use it. The new municipality came to assert its imperious authority, preceded by three banners, inscribed with the words, "Patrie, liberté, egalité". They demanded the deposition of the king and t ...

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10th of August French Revolution, 10th of August French Revolution - The context, 10th of August French Revolution - La Patrie en danger, 10th of August French Revolution - Insurrectionism, 10th of August French Revolution - The insurrection, 10th of August French Revolution - The demise of the National Assembly, 10th of August French Revolution - The aftermath, 10th of August French Revolution - External link

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In 1785, Condorcet wrote the Essay on the Application of Analysis to the Probability of Majority Decisions, one of his most important works. In this, he explores the "Condorcet's paradox", which describes the intransitivity of majority preference. Condorcet's paradox states that it is possible for a majority to prefer A over B, another majority to prefer B over C, and another majority to prefer C over A, all from the same electorate and same set of ballots. In this paper, he also outlines a generic Condorcet method, a method designed ...

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Marquis de Condorcet, Marquis de Condorcet - Early years, Marquis de Condorcet - Political career, Marquis de Condorcet - Condorcet's paradox, Marquis de Condorcet - French Revolution

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In 1774, Condorcet was appointed Inspector General of the Mint by Turgot. From this point, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy and political matters. In the following years, he took up the defense of human rights in general, and of women's and coloured people's rights in particular. He supported the ideals embodied by the newly formed United States of America, and proposed projects of political, administ ...

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Marquis de Condorcet, Marquis de Condorcet - Early years, Marquis de Condorcet - Political career, Marquis de Condorcet - Condorcet's paradox, Marquis de Condorcet - French Revolution

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