Decapitation has been used as a form of capital punishment for millennia. The terms capital offence, capital crime, and capital punishment derive from the punishment for serious offences being the removal of their head (from Latin, caput, capitis, meaning head). Political prisoners (labelled traitors) and serious criminals often had their heads removed and placed on public display for a period of time. For instance, in medieval England, the heads were placed on spikes along the walls of the Tower of London. On the other hand, e ...

See also:

Decapitation, Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history, Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world, Decapitation - Some famous persons who have been beheaded, Decapitation - Biblical, Decapitation - Celtic Saints, Decapitation - Islamic, Decapitation - China, Decapitation - England, Decapitation - French Revolution, Decapitation - Italy, Decapitation - Mythological, Decapitation - Scotland, Decapitation - Nazi Germany, Decapitation - Modern era, Decapitation - Other meanings of the word

Read more here: » Decapitation: Encyclopedia II - Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history

A partial list of famous people buried in the Père-Lachaise Cemetery: Pierre Abélard (1079-1142), medieval French scholastic philosopher, famous for affair with student, Héloïse. Marie d'Agoult (1805-1876), author Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918), poet & soldier, coined term "surrealism." Miguel Ángel Asturias (1899-1974), Guatemalan author, winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in literature Hubertine Auclert (1848-1914), French feminist Jean-Pierre Aumont (1911-2001), actor ...

See also:

Père Lachaise, Père Lachaise - Origins, Père Lachaise - Famous Personalities Interred

Read more here: » Père Lachaise: Encyclopedia II - Père Lachaise - Famous Personalities Interred

Decapitation has been used as a form of capital punishment for millennia. The terms capital offence, capital crime, and capital punishment derive from the punishment for serious offences being the removal of their head. Political prisoners (labelled traitors) and serious criminals often had their heads removed and placed on public display for a period of time. For instance, in medieval England, the heads were placed on spikes along the walls of the Tower of London. On the other hand, execution by beheading with a sword (or axe, a military we ...

See also:

Decapitation, Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history, Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world, Decapitation - Some famous persons who have been beheaded, Decapitation - Biblical, Decapitation - Celtic Saints, Decapitation - Islamic, Decapitation - China, Decapitation - England, Decapitation - French Revolution, Decapitation - Italy, Decapitation - Mythological, Decapitation - Scotland, Decapitation - Weimar Republic, Decapitation - Nazi Germany, Decapitation - Modern era, Decapitation - Other meanings of the word

Read more here: » Decapitation: Encyclopedia II - Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history

Neoconservatism - Usage and general views. The meaning of the term has changed over time. It was possibly first used circa 1970 by socialist author and activist Michael Harrington to characterize former leftists who had moved significantly to the right – people he derided as "socialists for Nixon." The "neoconservatives" thus described in this original sense tended to remain supporters of the welfare state, but had distinguished themselves from others on the left by allying with the Nixon administration over foreign policy, especially in their anti-communism, their ...

See also:

Neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservative: Definition and views, Neoconservatism - Usage and general views, Neoconservatism - Overview of Neoconservative views, Neoconservatism - Distinctions from other Conservative movements, Neoconservatism - Shortcomings and criticism of the term Neoconservative, Neoconservatism - Pejorative use, Neoconservatism - History and origins of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Great Depression and World War II, Neoconservatism - New Left, Neoconservatism - Drift away from New Left and Great Society, Neoconservatism - Left-wing roots of Neoconservative organizations?, Neoconservatism - Reagan and the Neoconservatives, Neoconservatism - Neoconservativism under George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, Neoconservatism - Administration of George W. Bush, Neoconservatism - China spy plane incident, Neoconservatism - September 11 2001, Neoconservatism - Bush Doctrine, Neoconservatism - Impact of 2003 Iraq War on Neoconservative philosophy and influence, Neoconservatism - Criticism of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Jacobinism Bolshevism, Neoconservatism - Conflict with Libertarians, Neoconservatism - Disagreement with Business Lobby fiscal conservatives, Neoconservatism - Friction with Paleoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservatism Judaism and Dual Loyalty, Neoconservatism - Related Publications and Institutions, Neoconservatism - Institutions, Neoconservatism - Publications, Neoconservatism - References in Popular Culture

Read more here: » Neoconservatism: Encyclopedia II - Neoconservatism - Neoconservative: Definition and views

French Revolution - The Estates-General of 1789. For a more detailed description of the events of August 8, 1788- June 17, 1789, see Estates-General of 1789 The calling of the Estates-General led to growing concern on the part of the opposition that the government would attempt to gerrymander an assembly to its liking. In order to avoid this, the Parlement of Paris, having returned in triumph to the city, proclaimed that the Estates-General would have to meet according to the forms observed a ...

See also:

French Revolution, French Revolution - Causes, French Revolution - History, French Revolution - The Estates-General of 1789, French Revolution - The National Assembly, French Revolution - The National Constituent Assembly, French Revolution - The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy, French Revolution - The Convention, French Revolution - The Directory, French Revolution - Other revolutions in French history

Read more here: » French Revolution: Encyclopedia II - French Revolution - History

Originally settled by the Celtic tribe of the Atrebates, it later became a Roman garrison town known as Atrebatum. It is located in the former Dutch and French province of Artois. For many centuries, Arras was on the border between France and the Netherlands and it frequently changed hands before firmly becoming French in the late 17th century, the fortifications upgraded by Vauban helping keep it in French hands. The town was closely linked to the trade of Flanders and later became an important centre for sugar beet farming and processing as we ...

See also:

Arras, Arras - History, Arras - Sights, Arras - In literature

Read more here: » Arras: Encyclopedia II - Arras - History

Liberalism - Origins of liberal thought. The focus on "liberty" as an essential right of people within the polity has been repeatedly asserted throughout history. Mentioned above are the conflicts between the plebeians and patricians in ancient Rome and the struggles of Italian city states against the Papal States. The republics of Florence and Venice had forms of elections, the rule of law, and pursuit of free enterprise through much of the 1400s until domination by outside powers in the 16th century. The Dutch ...

See also:

Liberalism, Liberalism - The nature and origins of liberalism: an overview, Liberalism - Etymology and historical usage, Liberalism - Trends within liberalism, Liberalism - Comparative influences, Liberalism - Development of liberal thought, Liberalism - Origins of liberal thought, Liberalism - Revolutionary liberalism, Liberalism - Disputes within liberalism, Liberalism - Liberalism and the great depression, Liberalism - Liberalism against totalitarianism, Liberalism - Liberalism after World War II, Liberalism - The impact of liberalism in the modern world, Liberalism - Contemporary liberalism, Liberalism - A general overview of political positions, Liberalism - Political deviances, Liberalism - Comparative critiques, Liberalism - Liberal conservatism, Liberalism - Neoliberalism, Liberalism - Further reading on liberalism

Read more here: » Liberalism: Encyclopedia II - Liberalism - Development of liberal thought

1794 - Unknown dates. Horatio Nelson loses a right eye at Calvi in Corsica Coffee forbidden by royal decree in Sweden France occupies Aachen. 1794 - Ongoing events. French Revolution (1789-1799) French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)-First Coalition ...

See also:

1794, 1794 - Events, 1794 - Unknown dates, 1794 - Ongoing events, 1794 - Births, 1794 - Deaths

Read more here: » 1794: Encyclopedia II - 1794 - Events

The populace were unwilling to wait on the result of Pétion's attempts to pursue matters through legislative channels. The section of the Quinze-vingts declared on August 8 that, if the dethronement were not pronounced that very day, at midnight they would sound the tocsin and attack the royal residence at the Tuileries. Of the forty-eight sections of Paris, all but one concurred. Pétion informed the Legislative Assembly that the sections had "resumed their sovereignty" an ...

See also:

10th of August French Revolution, 10th of August French Revolution - The context, 10th of August French Revolution - La Patrie en danger, 10th of August French Revolution - Insurrectionism, 10th of August French Revolution - The insurrection, 10th of August French Revolution - The demise of the National Assembly, 10th of August French Revolution - The aftermath, 10th of August French Revolution - External link

Read more here: » 10th of August French Revolution: Encyclopedia II - 10th of August French Revolution - The insurrection

18th century - 1700s. 1701-1714: War of the Spanish Succession 1703: Saint Petersburg founded by Peter the Great. Russian capital until 1918. 1707: Act of Union passed merging the Scottish and the English Parliaments, thus establishing The Kingdom of Great Britain. 1707: After Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline. 18th century - 1710s. 1715: Louis XIV dies 1718: City of New Orleans founde ...

See also:

18th century, 18th century - Events, 18th century - 1700s, 18th century - 1710s, 18th century - 1720s, 18th century - 1730s, 18th century - 1740s, 18th century - 1750s, 18th century - 1760s, 18th century - 1770s, 18th century - 1780s, 18th century - 1790s, 18th century - Significant people, 18th century - Inventions, discoveries, introductions, 18th century - Decades and years

Read more here: » 18th century: Encyclopedia II - 18th century - Events

Liberalism - A general overview of political positions. The word liberalism is today used differently in various countries. (See Liberalism worldwide.) One of the greatest contrasts is between the usage in the United States and usage in Continental Europe. In the US, liberalism is usually contrasted with conservatism, and American liberals support broader tolerance and more readily embrace multiculturalism and positive discrimination. In Europe, on the other hand, liberalism is not only contrasted w ...

See also:

Liberalism, Liberalism - The nature and origins of liberalism: an overview, Liberalism - Etymology and historical usage, Liberalism - Trends within liberalism, Liberalism - Comparative influences, Liberalism - Development of liberal thought, Liberalism - Origins of liberal thought, Liberalism - Revolutionary liberalism, Liberalism - Disputes within liberalism, Liberalism - Liberalism and the great depression, Liberalism - Liberalism against totalitarianism, Liberalism - Liberalism after World War II, Liberalism - The impact of liberalism in the modern world, Liberalism - Contemporary liberalism, Liberalism - A general overview of political positions, Liberalism - Political deviances, Liberalism - Comparative critiques, Liberalism - Liberal conservatism, Liberalism - Neoliberalism, Liberalism - Further reading on liberalism

Read more here: » Liberalism: Encyclopedia II - Liberalism - Contemporary liberalism

The name of the cemetery comes from Père François de la Chaise (1624-1709). He was the confessor of Louis XIV, and lived in the Jesuit house rebuilt in 1682 on the site of the chapel. The property, situated on the side of a hill from which the king, during the Fronde, watched skirmishing between the Condé and Turenne, was bought by the city in 1804 and laid out by Alexandre-Théodore Brongniart, and later extended. The cemetery was established by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804. Cemeteries had been banned inside Paris in 1786 af ...

See also:

Père Lachaise, Père Lachaise - Origins, Père Lachaise - Famous Personalities Interred

Read more here: » Père Lachaise: Encyclopedia II - Père Lachaise - Origins

The use of decapitation has been discontinued in many parts of the world in part because of suspicion that the severed head may in certain cases continue to be alive to some extent and capable of feeling pain. Some evidence for this was gathered by studying the presence of death-related chemicals in the brains of beheaded animals. There have also been many apocryphal stories from France about the severed heads of guillotined persons that would change facial expression or move their lips. Certainly another major reason for the end of the pract ...

See also:

Decapitation, Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history, Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world, Decapitation - Some famous persons who have been beheaded, Decapitation - Biblical, Decapitation - Celtic Saints, Decapitation - Islamic, Decapitation - China, Decapitation - England, Decapitation - French Revolution, Decapitation - Italy, Decapitation - Mythological, Decapitation - Scotland, Decapitation - Nazi Germany, Decapitation - Modern era, Decapitation - Other meanings of the word

Read more here: » Decapitation: Encyclopedia II - Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world

Through the first part of 1792, France had been moving slowly toward the first of the French Revolutionary Wars. In April, the king had taken the unprecedented step of forming a cabinet of revolutionary Girondins. On April 20, war was declared against Austria. The initial battles were a disaster for the French, and Prussia joined Austria in active alliance against France (see First Coalition). However, a delay in th ...

See also:

10th of August French Revolution, 10th of August French Revolution - The context, 10th of August French Revolution - La Patrie en danger, 10th of August French Revolution - Insurrectionism, 10th of August French Revolution - The insurrection, 10th of August French Revolution - The demise of the National Assembly, 10th of August French Revolution - The aftermath, 10th of August French Revolution - External link

Read more here: » 10th of August French Revolution: Encyclopedia II - 10th of August French Revolution - The context

"New" conservatives initially approached this view from the political left, especially in reponse to key developments in modern American history. Neoconservatism - Great Depression and World War II. The Great Depression radicalized many immigrants, and introduced them to new and revolutionary ideas of socialism and communism. The forerunners of neoconservativism were generally liberals or socialists who strongly supported the Second World War, and who were influenced by the Depression-era ideas of former N ...

See also:

Neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservative: Definition and views, Neoconservatism - Usage and general views, Neoconservatism - Overview of Neoconservative views, Neoconservatism - Distinctions from other Conservative movements, Neoconservatism - Shortcomings and criticism of the term Neoconservative, Neoconservatism - Pejorative use, Neoconservatism - History and origins of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Great Depression and World War II, Neoconservatism - New Left, Neoconservatism - Drift away from New Left and Great Society, Neoconservatism - Left-wing roots of Neoconservative organizations?, Neoconservatism - Reagan and the Neoconservatives, Neoconservatism - Neoconservativism under George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, Neoconservatism - Administration of George W. Bush, Neoconservatism - China spy plane incident, Neoconservatism - September 11 2001, Neoconservatism - Bush Doctrine, Neoconservatism - Impact of 2003 Iraq War on Neoconservative philosophy and influence, Neoconservatism - Criticism of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Jacobinism Bolshevism, Neoconservatism - Conflict with Libertarians, Neoconservatism - Disagreement with Business Lobby fiscal conservatives, Neoconservatism - Friction with Paleoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservatism Judaism and Dual Loyalty, Neoconservatism - Related Publications and Institutions, Neoconservatism - Institutions, Neoconservatism - Publications, Neoconservatism - References in Popular Culture

Read more here: » Neoconservatism: Encyclopedia II - Neoconservatism - History and origins of neoconservatism

Thus, neoconservative thinkers were eager to implement a new foreign policy with the change in Administrations from Clinton to George W. Bush. Despite this, the Bush campaign and then the early Bush Administration did not appear to exhibit strong support for neoconservative principles, as candidate Bush stated his opposition to the idea of "nation-building" and an early foreign policy confrontation with China was handled without the vociferous confrontation suggested by some neoconservative thinkers. Also early in the Administration, some ne ...

See also:

Neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservative: Definition and views, Neoconservatism - Usage and general views, Neoconservatism - Overview of Neoconservative views, Neoconservatism - Distinctions from other Conservative movements, Neoconservatism - Shortcomings and criticism of the term Neoconservative, Neoconservatism - Pejorative use, Neoconservatism - History and origins of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Great Depression and World War II, Neoconservatism - New Left, Neoconservatism - Drift away from New Left and Great Society, Neoconservatism - Left-wing roots of Neoconservative organizations?, Neoconservatism - Reagan and the Neoconservatives, Neoconservatism - Neoconservativism under George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, Neoconservatism - Administration of George W. Bush, Neoconservatism - China spy plane incident, Neoconservatism - September 11 2001, Neoconservatism - Bush Doctrine, Neoconservatism - Impact of 2003 Iraq War on Neoconservative philosophy and influence, Neoconservatism - Criticism of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Jacobinism Bolshevism, Neoconservatism - Conflict with Libertarians, Neoconservatism - Disagreement with Business Lobby fiscal conservatives, Neoconservatism - Friction with Paleoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservatism Judaism and Dual Loyalty, Neoconservatism - Related Publications and Institutions, Neoconservatism - Institutions, Neoconservatism - Publications, Neoconservatism - References in Popular Culture

Read more here: » Neoconservatism: Encyclopedia II - Neoconservatism - Administration of George W. Bush

Neoconservatism - Institutions. American Enterprise Institute Bradley Foundation Project for the New American Century Foundation for the Defense of Democracies Neoconservatism - Publications. Commentary Weekly Standard Conservative magazines that regularly feature neoconservative ideas. Front Page Magazine The National Interest N ...

See also:

Neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservative: Definition and views, Neoconservatism - Usage and general views, Neoconservatism - Overview of Neoconservative views, Neoconservatism - Distinctions from other Conservative movements, Neoconservatism - Shortcomings and criticism of the term Neoconservative, Neoconservatism - Pejorative use, Neoconservatism - History and origins of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Great Depression and World War II, Neoconservatism - New Left, Neoconservatism - Drift away from New Left and Great Society, Neoconservatism - Left-wing roots of Neoconservative organizations?, Neoconservatism - Reagan and the Neoconservatives, Neoconservatism - Neoconservativism under George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, Neoconservatism - Administration of George W. Bush, Neoconservatism - China spy plane incident, Neoconservatism - September 11 2001, Neoconservatism - Bush Doctrine, Neoconservatism - Impact of 2003 Iraq War on Neoconservative philosophy and influence, Neoconservatism - Criticism of neoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Jacobinism Bolshevism, Neoconservatism - Conflict with Libertarians, Neoconservatism - Disagreement with Business Lobby fiscal conservatives, Neoconservatism - Friction with Paleoconservatism, Neoconservatism - Neoconservatism Judaism and Dual Loyalty, Neoconservatism - Related Publications and Institutions, Neoconservatism - Institutions, Neoconservatism - Publications, Neoconservatism - References in Popular Culture

Read more here: » Neoconservatism: Encyclopedia II - Neoconservatism - Related Publications and Institutions

In Marxist terminology, reactionary is generally used with a pejorative meaning to refer to people whose ideas might appear pro-working class but in essence contain elements of feudalism, capitalism, nationalism, fascism, or other ruling class characteristics. Rarely, the term may be also be used in a positive sense of self-description by people who believe in strict obedience to a god or to various social structures that they consider immutable (the social hie ...

See also:

Reactionary, Reactionary - Etymology and history, Reactionary - Meanings of reactionary in particular contexts, Reactionary - European reaction, Reactionary - Thermidorian Reaction, Reactionary - The Restored French Monarchy, Reactionary - The clerical philosophers, Reactionary - Metternich and containment, Reactionary - Late 19th and 20th century, Reactionary - American reaction, Reactionary - Sayings, Reactionary - Occurrences of the word reactionary, Reactionary - Miscellanea, Reactionary - Regressivism, Reactionary - Bibliography

Read more here: » Reactionary: Encyclopedia II - Reactionary - Meanings of reactionary in particular contexts

The use of decapitation has been discontinued in many parts of the world in part because of suspicion that the severed head may in certain cases continue to be alive to some extent and capable of feeling pain. Some evidence for this was gathered by studying the presence of death-related chemicals in the brains of beheaded animals. There have also been many apocryphal stories from France about the severed heads of guillotined persons that would change facial expression or move their lips. Certainly another major reason for the end of the pract ...

See also:

Decapitation, Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history, Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world, Decapitation - Some famous persons who have been beheaded, Decapitation - Biblical, Decapitation - Celtic Saints, Decapitation - Islamic, Decapitation - China, Decapitation - England, Decapitation - French Revolution, Decapitation - Italy, Decapitation - Mythological, Decapitation - Scotland, Decapitation - Weimar Republic, Decapitation - Nazi Germany, Decapitation - Modern era, Decapitation - Other meanings of the word

Read more here: » Decapitation: Encyclopedia II - Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world

Decapitation - Biblical. Goliath John the Baptist in the Gospels Holofernes in the deuterocanonical Book of Judith Apostle James, traditionally Apostle Paul, traditionally Decapitation - Celtic Saints. Saint Winefred of Flintshire in Wales. Saint Urith of Chittlehampton, Devon, England. Saint Columba of Spain. Saint Columba ...

See also:

Decapitation, Decapitation - Decapitation throughout history, Decapitation - Decapitation in the modern world, Decapitation - Some famous persons who have been beheaded, Decapitation - Biblical, Decapitation - Celtic Saints, Decapitation - Islamic, Decapitation - China, Decapitation - England, Decapitation - French Revolution, Decapitation - Italy, Decapitation - Mythological, Decapitation - Scotland, Decapitation - Weimar Republic, Decapitation - Nazi Germany, Decapitation - Modern era, Decapitation - Other meanings of the word

Read more here: » Decapitation: Encyclopedia II - Decapitation - Some famous persons who have been beheaded

Forster had Scottish roots and was born in Polish Royal Prussia. He worked in Russia, England, Poland and in several German countries of his times. Finally, he finished his life in France. He worked in different milieu and travelled a lot from his young age on. This together with the scientific upbringing based on the principles of the Enlightenment, in his view gave him a wide perspective on different ethnic and national communities: "All peoples of the earth have equal claims to my good will..., and my praise and blame are independent of national prejudice."^{See also:}

Georg Forster, Georg Forster - Biography, Georg Forster - Childhood and first journeys, Georg Forster - Around the World with Captain Cook, Georg Forster - A founder of the modern travel literature, Georg Forster - Forster as a professor, Georg Forster - Views from the Lower Rhine, Georg Forster - Forster and the French Revolution, Georg Forster - Forster and nations, Georg Forster - Forster's heritage, Georg Forster - Works

Read more here: » Georg Forster: Encyclopedia II - Georg Forster - Forster and nations

In the summer of 1793, the French Revolution was threatened both by internal enemies and conspirators, and by foreign European monarchies fearing that the Revolution would spread. Almost all European governments in that era were based on royal sovereignty, whether absolute or constitutional, rather than the popular sovereignty asserted by the revolutionary French. Foreign powers wanted to stifle the democratic and republican ideas. Their armies were pressing on the border of ...

See also:

Reign of Terror, Reign of Terror - Background, Reign of Terror - The Terror, Reign of Terror - The End, Reign of Terror - Treatment in fiction, Reign of Terror - Treatment in film, Reign of Terror - Treatment in television

Read more here: » Reign of Terror: Encyclopedia II - Reign of Terror - Background