The term natural science is used in a variety of ways, primarily: to denote the study of natural processes as opposed to human activities, in contrast to the social sciences; and to denote those sciences which employ the scientific method, in contrast, for example, to mathematics or computer science. The term natural philosophy formerly named the scientific discipline now known as physics. Natural theology straddles the disciplines of theology and philosophy of religion. In education and related areas, the contrast "natural/a ...

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Nature, Nature - Scientific divisions of Nature, Nature - Nature outside Earth and its atmosphere, Nature - Life, Nature - Chemicals, Nature - Matter and force, Nature - Earth, Nature - Philosophy of Nature, Nature - Metaphysics, Nature - The natural and the artificial, Nature - Beauty in Nature, Nature - Related concepts

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The writer Steven Fry has commented that if we look around us, anything ugly that we see will have been created by human hands; this exemplifies a widely held view that nature is intrinsically beautiful. That the beauty of nature has been celebrated by so large a proportion of our art is further proof of the strength of this association between nature and beauty. Many scientists also share the conviction that nature is beautiful; the French mathematici ...

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Nature, Nature - Scientific divisions of Nature, Nature - Nature outside Earth and its atmosphere, Nature - Life, Nature - Chemicals, Nature - Matter and force, Nature - Earth, Nature - Philosophy of Nature, Nature - Metaphysics, Nature - The natural and the artificial, Nature - Beauty in Nature, Nature - Related concepts

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Magnetic field is usually denoted by the symbol . Historically, was called the magnetic flux density, magnetic induction, or magnetic field strength. was called the magnetic field (or magnetic field intensity), and this terminology is still often used to distinguish the two in the context of magnetic materials (non-trivial permeability μ). Otherwise, however, this distinction is often ignored, and both symbols are frequently referred to as the magnetic field. (Some authors call H the auxiliary field, instead.) In linear materials, such as air or free space, the ...

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Magnetic field, Magnetic field - Symbols and terminology, Magnetic field - Definition, Magnetic field - Current loop, Magnetic field - Point charge generating magnetic field, Magnetic field - Vector calculus, Magnetic field - Energy in the magnetic field, Magnetic field - Properties, Magnetic field - Magnetic field lines, Magnetic field - Pole labeling confusions, Magnetic field - Rotating magnetic fields, Magnetic field - External articles

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Rudras

Eleven expansions of Lord Siva who control the forces of destruction in the material world.

(See also: Rudras, Bhakti, Bhakti Yoga, Bhakti Dictionary, Body Mind and Soul)

Alfred Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon created the Binet-Simon scale in 1905, which used testing to identify students who could benefit from extra help in school. Their assumption was that lower scores indicated the need for more teaching, not an inability to learn. This interpretation is still held by some modern experts. Notably, Binet himself made no claim that his test properly measured intelligence. He stated in his paper New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals that ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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IQ scores are expressed as a number normalized so that the average IQ in an age group is 100. In other words, an individual scoring 115 is above average when compared to people in the same age group. It is common practice to standardize so that the standard deviation (σ) of scores is 15, although some IQ tests use difference scales (for example, the Stanford Binet IQ test uses a standard deviation of 16, and the Cattell IIIB test uses a standard deviation of 24). Tests are designed so that the distribution of IQ scores is Gaussian; that is, ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Main article: General intelligence factor Modern IQ tests produce scores for different areas (e.g., language fluency, three-dimensional thinking, etc.), with the summary score calculated from subtest scores. Individual subtest scores tend to correlate with one another, even when seemingly disparate in content. Analyses of an individual's scores on the subtests of a single IQ test or the scores from a variety of different IQ tests (e.g., Stanford-Binet, WISC-R, Raven's Progressive Matrices and others) will reveal that they all m ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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The role of genes and environment (nature vs. nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin et al. (2001, 2003). The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called heritability. Heritability scores range from 0 to 1, and can be interpreted as the percentage of variation (e.g. in IQ) that is due to variation in genes. Twins studies and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait. Until recently heritability was mostly studied in childre ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Main article: Brain size and intelligence Modern studies using MRI imaging have shown that brain size correlates with IQ by a factor of approximately .40 among adults (McDaniel, 2005). The correlation between brain size and IQ seems to hold for comparisons between and within families (Gignac et al. 2003; Jensen 1994; Jensen & Johnson 1994). However, one study found no within family correlation (Schoenemann et al. 2000). A study on twins (Thompson et al., 2001) showed that frontal gray matter volume was correlated wit ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Main article: Flynn effect Worldwide, IQ scores appear to be slowly rising, a trend known as the Flynn effect. However, tests are only renormalized occasionally to obtain mean scores of 100, for example WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991) and WISC-IV (2003). Hence it is difficult to compare IQ scores measured years apart. ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ. Main article: Race and intelligence While the distributions of IQ scores among different racial-ethnic groups overlap considerably, groups differ in where their members cluster along the IQ scale. Some groups (e.g. East Asians and Jews) tend to cluster higher than whites, while other groups (e.g. blacks and Hispanics) tend to cluster lower than whites. Similar clustering occurs with related variables, such as school achievement, reaction time, and brain size. Man ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Evidence for the practical validity of IQ comes from examining the correlation between IQ scores and life outcomes. Research shows that intelligence plays an important role in many valued life outcomes. In addition to academic success, intelligence correlates with job performance (see below), socioeconomic advancement (e.g., level of education, occupation, and income), and "social pathology" (e.g., adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). Recent work has demonstrated links between ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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The Supreme Court of the United States has also validated the use of IQ results during the sentencing phase of some criminal proceedings. The Supreme Court case of Akins v. Virginia, decided June 20, 2002, [17] held that executions of mentally retarded criminals are "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment. In Akins the court stated that "...[I]t appears that even among those States that regularly execute offenders and that have no prohibition with regard to the mentally retarded, only fiv ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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While IQ is sometimes treated as an end unto itself, scholarly work on IQ focuses to a large extent on IQ's validity, that is, the degree to which IQ predicts outcomes such as job performance, social pathologies, or academic achievement. Different IQ tests differ in their validity for various outcomes. Tests also differ in their g-loading, which is the degree to which the test score reflects general mental ability rather than a specific skill or "group factor" such as verbal ability, spatial visualization, or mathematical reaso ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Some maintain that IQ is a social construct invented by the privileged classes, used to maintain their privilege. Others maintain that intelligence, measured by IQ or g, reflects a real ability, is a useful tool in performing life tasks and has a biological reality. The social-construct and real-ability interpretations for IQ differences can be distinguished because they make opposite predictions about what would happen if people were given equal opportunities. The social explanation predicts that equal treatment will eliminate ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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While a large amount of one's IQ is predetermined by genetic factors, the environment can play a role as well. IQ can be improved to a certain extent through reading and application. Improvement in diet and regular exercise can help certain cognitive functions, and getting more sleep may help as well. Depression and stress reduce IQ somewhat, so removal of these factors might also help. Drugs designed to improve cognitive fu ...

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Intelligence quotient, Intelligence quotient - History, Intelligence quotient - IQ score distribution, Intelligence quotient - IQ and General Intelligence Factor, Intelligence quotient - Genetics vs environment, Intelligence quotient - Environment, Intelligence quotient - Development, Intelligence quotient - Mental retardation, Intelligence quotient - IQ education and income, Intelligence quotient - Regression, Intelligence quotient - Brain size and IQ, Intelligence quotient - The Flynn effect, Intelligence quotient - IQ correlations, Intelligence quotient - Race and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Religiousness and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Health and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Economic development and IQ, Intelligence quotient - Practical validity, Intelligence quotient - Use of IQ in the United States legal system, Intelligence quotient - Validity and g-loading of specific tests, Intelligence quotient - Social construct?, Intelligence quotient - The Mismeasure of Man, Intelligence quotient - The view of the American Psychological Association, Intelligence quotient - Improving IQ, Intelligence quotient - The APA 1996 Intelligence Task Force Report, Intelligence quotient - Controversy, Intelligence quotient - End material, Intelligence quotient - External links, Intelligence quotient - References

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Structural Form (li): Neo-Confucian term used by writers such as Chu Hsi who see it as a metaphysical principal in contrast with material force (ch'i).

 (See also: Structural Form, Eastern Philosophy, Body Mind and Soul)

Turkish Air Force - Founding years. The History of the Turkish Air Force starts in 1909, making the Turkish Air Force to one of the oldest Air Forces on Earth. Joining the International Aviation Conference in Paris and sending a delegation to Europe, the Ottoman Empire decided very soon to start an own military aviation program. For this purpose officers were sent to Europe for investigations at the end of 1910. But because of the bad materially conditions this commands couldn't be completed. But the Minister of ...

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Turkish Air Force, Turkish Air Force - History, Turkish Air Force - Founding years, Turkish Air Force - 1911-1918, Turkish Air Force - 1918-1923, Turkish Air Force - 1923-1940, Turkish Air Force - 1940-now, Turkish Air Force - Structure, Turkish Air Force - Main equipment, Turkish Air Force - Source

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Prana: The life force or energy which animates material forms. It is also present in breath. Also Chi, Ki or Mana in other belief systems.

(See also: Prana, Alternative Health, Body Mind and Soul)

Concrete pavements (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement, gravel, and sand. The material is applied in a freshly-mixed slurry, and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the thinner cement slurry to the surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. Cement concrete can be either reinforced or non-reinforced. Non-reinforced pavements will typically have joints at a 5 meter interval. Reinforced concrete pavements can have a much longer joint spacing, or no built-in joints at all. Typical reinforcement used inclu ...

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Pavement material, Pavement material - Metalling, Pavement material - Asphalt paving, Pavement material - Concrete paving, Pavement material - Bituminous Surface Treatment BST, Pavement material - Other paving methods, Pavement material - Pavement deterioration

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The Digitized Document System(DDS) of the Army Heritage and Education Center(AHEC) and the U.S. Army Military History Institute (USAMHI) provides on-line access to images of a small selection of materials in our collections such as photographs, printed materials, archival documents, artifacts, and finding aids to our holdings. This system is called the Army Heritage Collection Online. The materials available on line represent many different periods of American military history, branches of the Army, activities military forces take par ...

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Work of the United States Government, Work of the United States Government - Digital Historical Material, Work of the United States Government - The US Army Institute Of Heraldry, Work of the United States Government - Works produced by contractors, Work of the United States Government - Examples

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An accretion disc (or accretion disk) is a structure formed by material falling into a gravitational source. Conservation of angular momentum requires that, as a large cloud of material collapses inward, any small rotation it may have will increase. Centrifugal force causes the rotating cloud to collapse into a disc, and tidal effects will tend to align this disc's rotation with the rotation of the gravitational source in the middle. Viscosity within the disc generates heat and saps orbital momentum, causing material in the dis ...

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Accretion disc, Accretion disc - Overview, Accretion disc - α-Disc Model, Accretion disc - Magneto-Rotational Instability

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