The period of German history from 1919 to 1933 is known as the Weimar Republic (German Weimarer Republik, IPA: [ˈvaɪ̯marər repuˈbliːk]). It is named after the city of Weimar where a national assembly convened to produce a new constitution after the German Monarchy and German Empire were abolished following the nation's defeat in World War I. This first attempt to establish a liberal democracy in Germany happened during a time of civil conflict, and failed with t ...

Including:

• Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918-1919
• Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution
• Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar
• Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919-1923
• Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923-1929
• Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930-1932
• Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic
• Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections
• Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher
• Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933
• Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire
• Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5
• Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March
• Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations
• Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21
• Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23
• Weimar Republic - Aftermath
• Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure
• Weimar Republic - Economic problems
• Weimar Republic - Institutional problems
• Weimar Republic - Individual roles
• Weimar Republic - Other roles
• Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia - Weimar Republic

Aristide Briand (March 28, 1862 – March 7, 1932) was a French statesman. He was born at Nantes, of a bourgeois family. He studied law, and soon went into politics, associating himself with the most advanced movements, writing articles for the anarchist journal Le Peuple, and directing the Lanterne for some time. From this he passed to the Petite République, leaving it to found < ...

Including:

• Aristide Briand - Reference
• Aristide Briand - Briand's first Government 24 July 1909 - 3 November 1910
• Aristide Briand - Briand's second Minister 3 November 1910 - 2 March 1911
• Aristide Briand - Briand's third Government 21 January - 22 March 1913
• Aristide Briand - Briand's fourth Government 29 October 1915 - 12 December 1916
• Aristide Briand - Briand's fifth Government 12 December 1916 - 20 March 1917
• Aristide Briand - Briand's sixth Government 16 January 1921 - 15 January 1922
• Aristide Briand - Briand's seventh Government 28 November 1925 - 9 March 1926
• Aristide Briand - Briand's eighth Government 9 March - 23 June 1926
• Aristide Briand - Briand's Ninth Government 23 June - 19 July 1926
• Aristide Briand - Briand's tenth Government 29 July - 3 November 1929

Read more here: » Aristide Briand: Encyclopedia - Aristide Briand

From 1916 onwards, the 1871 German Empire had effectively been governed by the military, led by the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, Supreme Army Command) with the Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg. When it became apparent that World War I was lost, the OHL demanded that a civil government be installed in order to meet a key peace talk condition from United States President Woodrow Wilson. Any attempt to continue the war after Bulgaria had left the Central Powers would only have caused German territories to be occupied. The new Reichsk ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918–1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919–1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923–1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930–1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918–1919

At the start of each construction programme, basic construction prototypes were laid out on the drawing board and then built, sometimes by the thousands. This standardisation of the bunkers ("pillboxes") and tank traps was necessary because of the lack of raw materials, transport and workers. Siegfried Line - Pioneering programme. For the main part of the pioneering programme, small bunkers were set up with three embrasures towards the front. The walls were only 50cm thick and provided no protection agains ...

See also:

Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - Origin of the name Westwall, Siegfried Line - Construction programmes 1938 – 1940, Siegfried Line - Typical basic construction types, Siegfried Line - Pioneering programme, Siegfried Line - Limes programme, Siegfried Line - Aachen-Saar Programme, Siegfried Line - Western Air Defence Zone, Siegfried Line - Geldern Emplacement, Siegfried Line - Tank traps, Siegfried Line - Working conditions during construction, Siegfried Line - Armour plates and arms, Siegfried Line - The role of the Siegfried Line at the beginning of the war, Siegfried Line - Reactivation of the Siegfried Line 1944, Siegfried Line - Clashes on the Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - The Siegfried Line as a propaganda tool, Siegfried Line - Post-war period, Siegfried Line - The unpleasant as a memorial, Siegfried Line - Nature conservation at the Siegfried Line

Read more here: » Siegfried Line: Encyclopedia II - Siegfried Line - Typical basic construction types

From 1916 onwards, the 1871 German Empire had effectively been governed by the military, led by the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, Supreme Army Command) with the Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg. When it became apparent that World War I was lost, the OHL demanded that a civil government be installed in order to meet a key peace talk condition from United States President Woodrow Wilson. Any attempt to continue the war after Bulgaria had left the Central Powers would only have caused German territories to be occupied. The new Reichsk ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918-1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919-1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923-1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930-1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918-1919

The Siegfried Line was much more valuable as a propaganda tool than as a military defence. German propaganda, both at home and abroad, repeatedly portrayed the line during its construction as an unbreachable bulwark. For Germans the building of the line represented the regime's defensive intentions, whereas for neighbouring countries it appeared threatening and reassuring at the same time. This strategy proved very successful from the Nazi point of view both at the start and at the end of the World War II. At the start of the war, the ...

See also:

Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - Origin of the name Westwall, Siegfried Line - Construction programmes 1938 – 1940, Siegfried Line - Typical basic construction types, Siegfried Line - Pioneering programme, Siegfried Line - Limes programme, Siegfried Line - Aachen-Saar Programme, Siegfried Line - Western Air Defence Zone, Siegfried Line - Geldern Emplacement, Siegfried Line - Tank traps, Siegfried Line - Working conditions during construction, Siegfried Line - Armour plates and arms, Siegfried Line - The role of the Siegfried Line at the beginning of the war, Siegfried Line - Reactivation of the Siegfried Line 1944, Siegfried Line - Clashes on the Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - The Siegfried Line as a propaganda tool, Siegfried Line - Post-war period, Siegfried Line - The unpleasant as a memorial, Siegfried Line - Nature conservation at the Siegfried Line

Read more here: » Siegfried Line: Encyclopedia II - Siegfried Line - The Siegfried Line as a propaganda tool

The Weimar Republic's catastrophic collapse is the subject of continued debate. Although Hitler became Reichskanzler legally through mechanisms set forth in the constitution and the NSDAP gained a relative majority of the seats in Parliament in two 1932 elections, he was appointed chancellor at a time when support for the NSDAP was not considered sufficient to gain power. Scholars have expressed divided opinions on the reasons and historical analysis this was complicated by the Cold War, when historians often attempted to justify ideo ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918–1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919–1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923–1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930–1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure

In August 1944 the first clashes took place by the Siegfried Line. The section of the line now fought over the most was the Hürtgenwald area in the Eifel, 20 Km (13 miles) southeast of Aachen. The battle in this confusing, heavily forested area claimed the lives of more than 10,000 U.S. soldiers; the German death toll is not exactly known, but may have been around 12,000. After the Battle of Hürtgenwald, the Battle of the Bulge began, starting at the area south of the Hürtgenwald, between Monschau and the Luxembourgian town of Echt ...

See also:

Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - Origin of the name Westwall, Siegfried Line - Construction programmes 1938 – 1940, Siegfried Line - Typical basic construction types, Siegfried Line - Pioneering programme, Siegfried Line - Limes programme, Siegfried Line - Aachen-Saar Programme, Siegfried Line - Western Air Defence Zone, Siegfried Line - Geldern Emplacement, Siegfried Line - Tank traps, Siegfried Line - Working conditions during construction, Siegfried Line - Armour plates and arms, Siegfried Line - The role of the Siegfried Line at the beginning of the war, Siegfried Line - Reactivation of the Siegfried Line 1944, Siegfried Line - Clashes on the Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - The Siegfried Line as a propaganda tool, Siegfried Line - Post-war period, Siegfried Line - The unpleasant as a memorial, Siegfried Line - Nature conservation at the Siegfried Line

Read more here: » Siegfried Line: Encyclopedia II - Siegfried Line - Clashes on the Siegfried Line

Writers John Cornwell and Ian Kershaw are amongst the modern commentators who have studied the role of Ludwig Kaas and his alliance to Pope Pius XII. As regards the Rhenish-Westphalian Industrial Magnates and Franz von Papen, the Nuremburg Trials studied the era from January 30 1933, and came to the conclusion that it would not be an indictable offence to have assisted Adolf Hitler and the NSDAP to power. ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918–1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919–1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923–1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930–1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - Other roles

Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor on the morning of January 30, 1933 in what some observers later described as a brief and indifferent ceremony. By early February, a mere week after Hitler's assumption of the chancellorship, the government had begun to clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the left-wing parties were banned, and even some of the moderate parties found their members threatened and assaulted. Measures with an appearance of legality suppressed the Communist Party in mid-February and included the plainly illegal ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918–1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919–1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923–1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930–1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933

There were several distinct construction phases on the Siegfried Line: Border Watch programme (pioneering programme) for the most advanced positions (1938) Limes Programme (1938) Aachen-Saar Programme (1939) Geldern Emplacement between Brüggen and Kleve (1939 - 1940) Western Air Defence Zone (1938) These programmes were all pushed forward with the highest priority, using every resource available. ...

See also:

Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - Origin of the name Westwall, Siegfried Line - Construction programmes 1938 – 1940, Siegfried Line - Typical basic construction types, Siegfried Line - Pioneering programme, Siegfried Line - Limes programme, Siegfried Line - Aachen-Saar Programme, Siegfried Line - Western Air Defence Zone, Siegfried Line - Geldern Emplacement, Siegfried Line - Tank traps, Siegfried Line - Working conditions during construction, Siegfried Line - Armour plates and arms, Siegfried Line - The role of the Siegfried Line at the beginning of the war, Siegfried Line - Reactivation of the Siegfried Line 1944, Siegfried Line - Clashes on the Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - The Siegfried Line as a propaganda tool, Siegfried Line - Post-war period, Siegfried Line - The unpleasant as a memorial, Siegfried Line - Nature conservation at the Siegfried Line

Read more here: » Siegfried Line: Encyclopedia II - Siegfried Line - Construction programmes 1938 – 1940

With the D-Day landings in Normandy on June 6, 1944, war in the west broke out once more and a new situation arose. On August 24, 1944 Hitler gave a directive for the renewed construction of the Siegfried Line. 20,000 forced labourers and members of the German National Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst, RAD) most of whom were 14 to 16-year-old boys, attempted to reequip the line for defence purposes. Local people were also called in to carry out this kind of work, mostly building anti-ta ...

See also:

Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - Origin of the name Westwall, Siegfried Line - Construction programmes 1938 – 1940, Siegfried Line - Typical basic construction types, Siegfried Line - Pioneering programme, Siegfried Line - Limes programme, Siegfried Line - Aachen-Saar Programme, Siegfried Line - Western Air Defence Zone, Siegfried Line - Geldern Emplacement, Siegfried Line - Tank traps, Siegfried Line - Working conditions during construction, Siegfried Line - Armour plates and arms, Siegfried Line - The role of the Siegfried Line at the beginning of the war, Siegfried Line - Reactivation of the Siegfried Line 1944, Siegfried Line - Clashes on the Siegfried Line, Siegfried Line - The Siegfried Line as a propaganda tool, Siegfried Line - Post-war period, Siegfried Line - The unpleasant as a memorial, Siegfried Line - Nature conservation at the Siegfried Line

Read more here: » Siegfried Line: Encyclopedia II - Siegfried Line - Reactivation of the Siegfried Line 1944

The Republic was under great pressure from both left and right-wing extremists. The left accused the ruling Social Democrats of having betrayed the ideals of the workers' movement by avoiding a communist revolution. The right was opposed to any democratic system, preferring an authoritarian state like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine the Republic's credibility the right (especially the milit ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918–1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919–1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923–1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930–1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919–1923

Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic. The last years of the Weimar republic were stamped by even more political instability than in the previous years and the administrations of Chancellors Brüning, Papen, Schleicher and Hitler (from 30 January to 23 March 1933) were all Presidentially appointed Dictatorships. On March 29, 1930, the finance expert Heinrich Brüning had been appointed the successor of Chancellor Müller by Paul von Hindenburg after months of political lobbying by General Kurt vo ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918-1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919-1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923-1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930-1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930-1932

Gustav Stresemann was Reichskanzler for a brief period in 1923, and served as Foreign Minister from 1923-1929, a period of relative stability for the Weimar Republic when there were fewer uprisings and seemingly the beginnings of an economic recovery. Stresemann's first move was to issue a new currency, the Rentenmark, to halt the extreme hyperinflation crippling German society and the economy. It was successful because Stresemann repeatedly refused to issue more currency, the initial cause of the inflationary spiral. To ...

See also:

Weimar Republic, Weimar Republic - Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic 1918-1919, Weimar Republic - The Reichswehr and the Revolution, Weimar Republic - The socialist roots of Weimar, Weimar Republic - The early years: internal conflict 1919-1923, Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923-1929, Weimar Republic - The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises 1930-1932, Weimar Republic - Loss of credibility for the Republic, Weimar Republic - Franz von Papen calls for elections, Weimar Republic - November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher, Weimar Republic - Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic 1933, Weimar Republic - Reichstag Fire, Weimar Republic - Reichstag election of March 5, Weimar Republic - Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March, Weimar Republic - Enabling Act negotiations, Weimar Republic - Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21, Weimar Republic - Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23, Weimar Republic - Aftermath, Weimar Republic - Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure, Weimar Republic - Economic problems, Weimar Republic - Institutional problems, Weimar Republic - Individual roles, Weimar Republic - Other roles, Weimar Republic - Reference

Read more here: » Weimar Republic: Encyclopedia II - Weimar Republic - Stresemann's Golden Era 1923-1929