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List of ethics topics
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| ARTICLES RELATED TO list of ethics topics | | | | |  list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Historical backgroundAt one time, people deposited their precious metal coins at goldsmiths, receiving in turn a note for their deposit. As these notes began to be used directly in trading, participants no longer needed to redeem their notes to perform the trade. Thus an early form of paper money was born.
As the notes were used directly for trade, the goldsmiths realized that people would never redeem all their notes at the same time. Thus goldsmiths saw the opportunity to issue new bank notes and lend them at interest—a process that altered their role ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-Reserve Banking and Central Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money Creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro Gold-Coin-Standard Criticisms of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background |
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| | | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Pro Gold-Coin-Standard Criticisms of Fractional-Reserve Banking Many critics of irredeemable fiat money see fractional-reserve banking as a threat to the gold-coin standard, through fractional-reserve banking leading to exhaustion of reserves, prompting governments to make the notes of government-favoured banks legal tender, even though the issuer is in default. If such defaulted bank notes are made legal tender by government fiat, as they trade at a discount to their face value in terms of gold coin, will be a cheaper way to discharge debts, driving out gold coin.
However, other critics of irrede ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-Reserve Banking and Central Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money Creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro Gold-Coin-Standard Criticisms of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Pro Gold-Coin-Standard Criticisms of Fractional-Reserve Banking |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background At one time, people deposited their precious metal coins at goldsmiths, receiving in turn a note for their deposit. As these notes began to be used directly in trading, participants no longer needed to redeem their notes to perform the trade. Thus an early form of paper money was born.
As the notes were used directly for trade, the goldsmiths realized that people would never redeem all their notes at the same time. Thus goldsmiths saw the opportunity to issue new bank notes and lend them at interest—a process that altered their role ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-reserve banking and central banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro-gold standard criticisms of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government controls on fractional-reserve banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Pro-gold standard criticisms of fractional-reserve banking Many critics of irredeemable fiat currency see fractional-reserve banking as a threat to the gold standard, through fractional-reserve banking leading to exhaustion of reserves, prompting governments to make the notes of government-favoured banks legal tender, even though the issuer is in default. If such defaulted bank notes are made legal tender by government fiat, as they trade at a discount to ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-reserve banking and central banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro-gold standard criticisms of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government controls on fractional-reserve banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Pro-gold standard criticisms of fractional-reserve banking |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-Reserve Banking and Central Banking Central Banks are government owned and/or sponsored banks that issue notes and typically receive special privileges in the form of exemption from restrictions or taxes on note issue, or whose notes are made legal tender by government fiat (hence the term fiat currency -- the notes are current (legal tender) by government fiat (artificial law).
Central banks also operate as fractional-reserve banks, and the reserve ratio policies of the central bank influence specie flows and credit conditions, making the control of fractional-reserve ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-Reserve Banking and Central Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money Creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro Gold-Coin-Standard Criticisms of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-Reserve Banking and Central Banking |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Money Creation When banks issue notes and accept demand deposits, the bank's liabilities can be used as a means of payment to buy goods and services, for example by tendering bank notes and by writing cheques on demand deposit accounts. Bank liabilities therefore act as a substitute to legal tender, and allows banks to create the inverse of their reserve ratio in legal tender substitutes. For example, if the bank's reserve ratio is 10%, it can create 10 times its reserves of legal tender in notes and demand deposits that are used as money, and for this reason the ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-Reserve Banking and Central Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money Creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro Gold-Coin-Standard Criticisms of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Money Creation |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Government Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking Banking has been subject to generally a greater extent of government regulation and controls than other forms of business, and banking law has in many countries been the subject of extensive political debate, along side of the mono-metallic gold standard versus the bi-metallic gold or silver standard debate.
Government controls on banking related to fractional-reserve banking have generally been to impose restrictive requirements on note issue and deposit taking on the one hand, and to provide relief from bankruptcy and creditor claim ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-Reserve Banking and Central Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money Creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro Gold-Coin-Standard Criticisms of Fractional-Reserve Banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Government Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-reserve banking and central banking Central banks are government owned and/or sponsored banks that issue notes and typically receive special privileges in the form of exemption from restrictions or taxes on note issue, or whose notes are made legal tender by government fiat (hence the term fiat currency -- the notes are current (legal tender) by government fiat (artificial law).
Central banks also operate as fractional-reserve banks, and the reserve ratio policies of the central bank influence specie flows and credit conditions, making the control of fractional-reserve ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-reserve banking and central banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro-gold standard criticisms of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government controls on fractional-reserve banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-reserve banking and central banking |
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| | | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Money creation When banks issue notes and accept demand deposits, the bank's liabilities can be used as a means of payment to buy goods and services, for example by tendering bank notes and by writing cheques on demand deposit accounts. Bank liabilities therefore act as a substitute to legal tender, and allows banks to create the inverse of their reserve ratio in legal tender substitutes. For example, if the bank's reserve ratio is 10%, it can create 10 times its reserves of legal tender in notes and demand deposits that are used as money, and for this reason the ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-reserve banking and central banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro-gold standard criticisms of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government controls on fractional-reserve banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Money creation |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Government controls on fractional-reserve banking Banking has been subject to generally a greater extent of government regulation and controls than other forms of business, and banking law has in many countries been the subject of extensive political debate, along side of the mono-metallic gold standard versus the bi-metallic gold or silver standard debate.
Government controls on banking related to fractional-reserve banking have generally been to impose restrictive requirements on note issue and deposit taking on the one hand, and to provide relief from bankruptcy and creditor claim ...
See also:Fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Fractional-reserve banking and central banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Historical background, Fractional-reserve banking - Criticism of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Risk, Fractional-reserve banking - Money creation, Fractional-reserve banking - Pro-gold standard criticisms of fractional-reserve banking, Fractional-reserve banking - Government controls on fractional-reserve banking Read more here: » Fractional-reserve banking: Encyclopedia II - Fractional-reserve banking - Government controls on fractional-reserve banking |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Metaphysics - The origin of the word 'metaphysics' The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle produced a number of works which together were called the Physics. In an early edition, the works of Aristotle were organized in such a way that another set of works was placed right after the Physics. These books seemed to concern a basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which at the time did not have a name; Aristotle himself just called it "first philosophy". So early Aristotelian scholars called those books τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά βιβλια, "ta meta ta physik ...
See also:Metaphysics, Metaphysics - The origin of the word 'metaphysics', Metaphysics - Examples, Metaphysics - Criticism, Metaphysics - Metaphysical subdisciplines, Metaphysics - Metaphysical topics and problems, Metaphysics - Metaphysical jargon, Metaphysics - People Read more here: » Metaphysics: Encyclopedia II - Metaphysics - The origin of the word 'metaphysics' |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Metaphysics - Criticism Metaphysics has been attacked, at different times in history, as being futile and overly vague. Lord Byron often mocked the subject in his works. David Hume and Immanuel Kant both prescribed a limited role to the subject and argued against knowledge progressing beyond the world of our representations (except, in the case of Kant, to knowledge that the noumena exist). A.J. Ayer is famous for leading a "revolt against metaphysics", where he claimed that its propositions were meaningless. Martin Heidegger often criticised metaphysics, ye ...
See also:Metaphysics, Metaphysics - The origin of the word 'metaphysics', Metaphysics - Examples, Metaphysics - Criticism, Metaphysics - Metaphysical subdisciplines, Metaphysics - Metaphysical topics and problems, Metaphysics - Metaphysical jargon, Metaphysics - People Read more here: » Metaphysics: Encyclopedia II - Metaphysics - Criticism |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Buddhist philosophy - Historical development of Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy - Early development.
The philosophical outlook of Earliest Buddhism was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to reject more than on what doctrines to accept. This dimension has been preserved by the Madhyamaka school. It includes critical rejections of all views, which is a form of philosophy, but it is reluctant to posit its own. Only knowledge that is useful in achieving enlightenment is valued. The cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part dro ...
See also:Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist philosophy - Introduction, Buddhist philosophy - Buddhism as philosophy?, Buddhist philosophy - Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism, Buddhist philosophy - Epistemology, Buddhist philosophy - Metaphysics and phenomenology, Buddhist philosophy - Interpenetration, Buddhist philosophy - Ethics, Buddhist philosophy - Historical development of Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist philosophy - Early development, Buddhist philosophy - Later developments, Buddhist philosophy - Comparison with other philosophies, Buddhist philosophy - Some Buddhist philosophers Read more here: » Buddhist philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Buddhist philosophy - Historical development of Buddhist philosophy |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Buddhist philosophy - Introduction Samkhya
Nyaya
Vaisheshika
Yoga
Purva Mimamsa
Advaita Vedanta
Vishishtadvaita
Dvaita
Carvaka
Jain
Buddhist
Logic
From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox philosophical concepts, in which the Buddha had been instructed by various teachers. Buddhism rejects a ...
See also:Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist philosophy - Introduction, Buddhist philosophy - Buddhism as philosophy?, Buddhist philosophy - Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism, Buddhist philosophy - Epistemology, Buddhist philosophy - Metaphysics and phenomenology, Buddhist philosophy - Interpenetration, Buddhist philosophy - Ethics, Buddhist philosophy - Historical development of Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist philosophy - Early development, Buddhist philosophy - Later developments, Buddhist philosophy - Comparison with other philosophies, Buddhist philosophy - Some Buddhist philosophers Read more here: » Buddhist philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Buddhist philosophy - Introduction |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Buddhist philosophy - Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism
Buddhist philosophy - Epistemology.
Decisive in distinguishing Buddhism from what is commonly called Hinduism is the issue of epistemological justification. The schools of Indian logic recognize a certain set of valid justifications for knowledge, while Buddhism recognizes a smaller set. Both accept perception and argument, for example, but for the orthodox schools (of Hinduism), the received textual tradition (e.g., the Vedas) is in itself an epistemological category equal to perception and argument (although th ...
See also:Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist philosophy - Introduction, Buddhist philosophy - Buddhism as philosophy?, Buddhist philosophy - Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism, Buddhist philosophy - Epistemology, Buddhist philosophy - Metaphysics and phenomenology, Buddhist philosophy - Interpenetration, Buddhist philosophy - Ethics, Buddhist philosophy - Historical development of Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist philosophy - Early development, Buddhist philosophy - Later developments, Buddhist philosophy - Comparison with other philosophies, Buddhist philosophy - Some Buddhist philosophers Read more here: » Buddhist philosophy: Encyclopedia II - Buddhist philosophy - Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Welfare economics - Criticisms Many doubt whether a cardinal utility function (or cardinal social welfare function) is of any value. How do you aggregate the utilities of various people that have differing marginal utility of money (ie, the rich and the poor)?
Some even question the value of ordinal utility functions. They have proposed other means of measuring well-being as an alternative to price indices, "willingness to pay" functions, and other price oriented measures. These price based measures are seen as promoting consumerism and productivism by many. It should be noted that it is possible to do welfare economics without the ...
See also:Welfare economics, Welfare economics - Two approaches, Welfare economics - Efficiency, Welfare economics - Income distribution, Welfare economics - A simplified seven equation model, Welfare economics - Efficiency between production and consumption, Welfare economics - Social welfare maximization, Welfare economics - Welfare economics in relation to other subjects, Welfare economics - Criticisms Read more here: » Welfare economics: Encyclopedia II - Welfare economics - Criticisms |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Welfare economics - Two approaches There are two approaches that can be taken to welfare economics: the Neo-classical approach and the New welfare economics approach.
The Neo-classical approach was developed by Pigou, Bentham, Sidgwich, Edgeworth, and Marshall. It assumes that utility is cardinal and that additional consumption provide smaller and smaller increases in utility (diminishing marginal utility). It further assumes that all individuals have similar utility functions, therefore it is meaningful to compare one individual's utility to another's. Because of this assumption, it is possible to construct a social welfare function sim ...
See also:Welfare economics, Welfare economics - Two approaches, Welfare economics - Efficiency, Welfare economics - Income distribution, Welfare economics - A simplified seven equation model, Welfare economics - Efficiency between production and consumption, Welfare economics - Social welfare maximization, Welfare economics - Welfare economics in relation to other subjects, Welfare economics - Criticisms Read more here: » Welfare economics: Encyclopedia II - Welfare economics - Two approaches |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Welfare economics - Welfare economics in relation to other subjects Welfare economics uses many of the same techniques as microeconomics and can be seen as intermediate or advanced microeconomic theory. Its results are applicable to macroeconomic issues so welfare economics is somewhat of a bridge between the two branches of economics.
Cost-benefit analysis is a specific application of welfare economics techniques, but excludes the income distribution aspects.
Political science also looks into the issue of social welfare (political science), but in a less quantitative manner.
Human development theory explores ...
See also:Welfare economics, Welfare economics - Two approaches, Welfare economics - Efficiency, Welfare economics - Income distribution, Welfare economics - A simplified seven equation model, Welfare economics - Efficiency between production and consumption, Welfare economics - Social welfare maximization, Welfare economics - Welfare economics in relation to other subjects, Welfare economics - Criticisms Read more here: » Welfare economics: Encyclopedia II - Welfare economics - Welfare economics in relation to other subjects |
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| | | | | list of ethics topics: Encyclopedia II - Metaphysics - Examples It is sometimes difficult to understand what the issues even are in metaphysics. It might help to begin with a fairly simple example that will help to introduce the problems of metaphysics.
Imagine now that we are in a room, and in the middle of the room there is a table, and in the middle of the table there is a big, fresh, juicy, red apple. We can ask many metaphysical questions about this apple. This will, hopefully, help u ...
See also:Metaphysics, Metaphysics - The origin of the word 'metaphysics', Metaphysics - Examples, Metaphysics - Criticism, Metaphysics - Metaphysical subdisciplines, Metaphysics - Metaphysical topics and problems, Metaphysics - Metaphysical jargon, Metaphysics - People Read more here: » Metaphysics: Encyclopedia II - Metaphysics - Examples |
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