Linguistic morphology

In etymology, the process of back-formation is the creation of a neologism by reinterpreting an earlier word as a compound and removing the affixes, or more generally, by trying to reconstruct an original form from any kind of derived form (including abbreviations or inflected forms). The resulting new word is also called a back-formation. The simplest case is when a longer form of a word pair predates what would usually be the basic form. For example, the noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb Including:

• Back-formation - More examples of back-formation

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A bahuvrihi, or bahuvrihi compound, is a particular kind of compound word that refers to something that is not specified by any of its parts by themselves, especially a compound that refers to a possessor of an object specified. For instance, a sabertooth is neither a saber nor a tooth: it is a smilodon, an extinct feline with saber-like fangs. It is common, though not compulsory, that the last constituent in such a compound is a noun, and that the compound as a whole functions as an adjective. Bahuvrihis are often re ...

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Bound morphemes are morphemes that can only occur when attached to root morphemes. Affixes are bound morphemes. Common English bound morphemes include: -ing, -ed, -er, and pre-. Morphemes that are not bound morphemes are free morphemes. Category: Linguistic morphology ...

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Consonant mutation is the phenomenon in which a consonant in a word is changed according to its morphological and/or syntactic environment. Mutation phenomena are found in languages around the world. The prototypical example of consonant mutation is the initial consonant mutation of all modern Celtic languages. Initial consonant mutation is found also in Japanese, Indonesian or Malay, in Southern Paiute and in several West African languages such as Fula. Baltic Finnic languages such as Finnish and Estonian have mutation of word ...

Including:

• Consonant mutation - Celtic
• Consonant mutation - Japanese
• Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay
• Consonant mutation - Southern Paiute
• Consonant mutation - Fula
• Consonant mutation - Finnish
• Consonant mutation - Dholuo
• Consonant mutation - English
• Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew
• Consonant mutation - In fiction
• Consonant mutation - Sindarin
• Consonant mutation - Mutation vs. sandhi
• Consonant mutation - Bibliography

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In linguistics, apophony (also ablaut, gradation, alternation, internal modification, stem modification, stem alternation, replacive morphology, stem mutation, internal inflection) is the alternation of sounds within a word that indicates grammatical information (often inflectional). Apophony - Description. Apophony is exemplified in English as the internal vowel alternations that produce such related words as siIncluding:

• Apophony - Description
• Apophony - Types of apophony
• Apophony - Vowel apophony ablaut
• Apophony - Prosodic apophony
• Apophony - Consonant apophony mutation
• Apophony - Vowel alternation in Indo-European
• Apophony - Apophony vs. transfixation root-and-pattern
• Apophony - Replacive morphemes & apophony
• Apophony - Ablaut vs. umlaut
• Apophony - Ablaut-motivated compounding
• Apophony - Bibliography

Read more here: » Apophony: Encyclopedia - Apophony

Inflection - Highly inflected language families. The Dravidian languages are highly inflected, as well as the Finno-Ugric languages and many Native American languages. Inflection - Indo-European languages. All Indo-European languages, such as English, German, Russian, Persian (Fârsi), Spanish, French, Sanskrit, and Hindi are inflected to a greater or lesser extent. In general, older Indo-European languages such as Latin, Latvian, and Lithuanian are moderately inflected. Newer ...

See also:

Inflection, Inflection - Declension and conjugation, Inflection - Inflection vs. derivation, Inflection - Inflectional morphology, Inflection - Relation to morphological typology, Inflection - Inflection in various languages, Inflection - Highly inflected language families, Inflection - Indo-European languages, Inflection - East Asian languages, Inflection - Japanese, Inflection - Basque, Inflection - Examples, Inflection - English, Inflection - Latin and Romance languages, Inflection - References and recommended reading

Read more here: » Inflection: Encyclopedia II - Inflection - Inflection in various languages

Possessive suffix - Finnish. Finnish is one language that uses possessive suffixes. The number of possessors and their person can be distinguished for the singular and plural, except for the third person. However, the construction hides the number of possessed objects; käteni may mean either "my hand" or "my hands". For example, the following are the forms of talo (house), declined to show possession: The grammatical cases are not affected by the possessive suffix, except for the accu ...

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Possessive suffix, Possessive suffix - Possessive suffixes in various languages, Possessive suffix - Finnish, Possessive suffix - Hungarian, Possessive suffix - Hebrew, Possessive suffix - Reference

Read more here: » Possessive suffix: Encyclopedia II - Possessive suffix - Possessive suffixes in various languages

Morphology linguistics - Lexemes and word forms. The word "word" is ambiguous in common usage. To take up again the example of dog vs. dogs, there is one sense in which these two are the same "word" (they are both nouns that refer to the same kind of animal, differing only in number), and another sense in which they are different words (they can't generally be used in the same sentences without altering other words to fit; for example, the verbs is and areSee also:

Morphology linguistics, Morphology linguistics - Important concepts, Morphology linguistics - Lexemes and word forms, Morphology linguistics - Inflection vs. word-formation, Morphology linguistics - Paradigms and morphosyntax, Morphology linguistics - Allomorphy and morphophonology, Morphology linguistics - Lexical morphology, Morphology linguistics - Models of morphology, Morphology linguistics - Morpheme-based morphology, Morphology linguistics - Lexeme-based morphology, Morphology linguistics - Word-based morphology, Morphology linguistics - Morphological typology, Morphology linguistics - Footnotes, Morphology linguistics - Bibliography

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Irish initial mutations - Effects of lenition. 1. A stop becomes a fricative. Voicing is retained, as is place of articulation except with the coronals. /p/ → /f/ /pʲ/ → /fʲ/ /t/ → See also:

Irish initial mutations, Irish initial mutations - Lenition, Irish initial mutations - Effects of lenition, Irish initial mutations - Environments of lenition, Irish initial mutations - Eclipsis, Irish initial mutations - Effects of eclipsis, Irish initial mutations - Environments of eclipsis, Irish initial mutations - Changes to vowel-initial words

Read more here: » Irish initial mutations: Encyclopedia II - Irish initial mutations - Lenition

Irish morphology - Personal pronouns. Personal pronouns in Irish do not inflect for case, but there are three different sets of pronouns used: conjunctive forms, disjunctive forms, and emphatic forms (which may be used either conjunctively or disjunctively) The normal word order in Irish is verb-subject-object (VSO). The forms of the subject pronoun directly following the verb are called conjunctive: The form muid in the 1st person plural is not used in the standard language, but is very common in the dialects. The standard has no subject pronoun in the 1st person pl ...

See also:

Irish morphology, Irish morphology - Pronouns, Irish morphology - Personal pronouns, Irish morphology - Possessive pronouns, Irish morphology - Interrogative pronouns, Irish morphology - Inflected prepositions, Irish morphology - Numbers, Irish morphology - Cardinal numbers, Irish morphology - Ordinal numbers

Read more here: » Irish morphology: Encyclopedia II - Irish morphology - Pronouns

Class 3, Sweet's "bind conjugation", represents all verbs in which the IE Ablaut-vowel was followed by a nasal (n) or a liquid (r/l) and another consonant. Also possible is h plus another consonant. So the combinations are: With nasals (class 3a): CVnC, CVnn, CVmC, CVmm With liquids (class 3b): CVlC, CVll, CVrC, CVhC In the zero-grade forms, the nasal or liquid became a syllabic sonorant in PIE, transcribed as a circle belo ...

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West Germanic strong verb, West Germanic strong verb - Conjugation, West Germanic strong verb - Verb classes, West Germanic strong verb - General developments, West Germanic strong verb - Class 1, West Germanic strong verb - Class 2, West Germanic strong verb - Class 3, West Germanic strong verb - Class 4, West Germanic strong verb - Class 5, West Germanic strong verb - Class 6, West Germanic strong verb - Class 7, West Germanic strong verb - Sources

Read more here: » West Germanic strong verb: Encyclopedia II - West Germanic strong verb - Class 3

Verbs in Old English are divided into strong or weak verbs. For a fuller discussion of these, see Germanic weak verb and West Germanic strong verb. Old English morphology - Strong verbs. Strong verbs use the Germanic form of conjugation (known as Ablaut). In this form of conjugation, the stem of the word changes to indicate the tense. Verbs like this persist in modern English, for example "sing, sang, sung" is a strong verb, as are swim/swam/swum and choose/chose/chosen. The root portion of t ...

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Old English morphology, Old English morphology - Verbs, Old English morphology - Strong verbs, Old English morphology - Weak verbs, Old English morphology - Anomalous verbs, Old English morphology - Nouns, Old English morphology - Strong nouns, Old English morphology - Weak nouns, Old English morphology - Irregular strong nouns, Old English morphology - Nouns of relationship, Old English morphology - Adjectives, Old English morphology - Determiners, Old English morphology - Pronouns, Old English morphology - Personal pronouns, Old English morphology - Prepositions

Read more here: » Old English morphology: Encyclopedia II - Old English morphology - Verbs

Irish uses a number of preverbal particles to modify the meaning of a sentence. In a positive statement, no particle is used and the verb comes first: Tuigeann Seán Gaeilge. 'Seán understands Irish.' Thuig Seán Gaeilge. 'Seán understood Irish.' Thuigfeadh Seán Gaeilge. 'Seán would understand Irish.' Irish verbs - Negative particles. To negate a statement, the particle ní is used, which causes lenition; a d' before a vowel or le ...

See also:

Irish verbs, Irish verbs - Regular Verbs, Irish verbs - 1st Conjugation, Irish verbs - 2nd Conjugation, Irish verbs - Irregular verbs, Irish verbs - abair 'to say', Irish verbs - beir 'to carry', Irish verbs - bí 'to be', Irish verbs - clois/cluin 'to hear', Irish verbs - déan 'to do to make', Irish verbs - faigh 'to receive to find', Irish verbs - feic 'to see', Irish verbs - ith 'to eat', Irish verbs - tabhair 'to give to bring', Irish verbs - tar 'to come', Irish verbs - téigh 'to go', Irish verbs - Verbal nouns, Irish verbs - Formation of the verbal noun, Irish verbs - Usage of the verbal noun, Irish verbs - Preverbal particles, Irish verbs - Negative particles, Irish verbs - Interrogative particles, Irish verbs - Negative interrogative particles, Irish verbs - Wh-interrogative particles

Read more here: » Irish verbs: Encyclopedia II - Irish verbs - Preverbal particles

Inflection - Highly inflected language families. The Dravidian languages are highly inflected, as well as the Finno-Ugric languages and many Native American languages. Inflection - Indo-European languages. All Indo-European languages, such as English, German, Russian, Spanish, French, Sanskrit, and Hindi are inflected to a greater or lesser extent. In general, older Indo-European languages such as Latin, Latvian, and Lithuanian are moderately inflected. Newer languages such as ...

See also:

Inflection, Inflection - Declension and conjugation, Inflection - Inflection vs. derivation, Inflection - Inflectional morphology, Inflection - Relation to morphological typology, Inflection - Inflection in various languages, Inflection - Highly inflected language families, Inflection - Indo-European languages, Inflection - East Asian languages, Inflection - Japanese, Inflection - Basque, Inflection - Examples, Inflection - English, Inflection - Latin and Romance languages, Inflection - References and recommended reading

Read more here: » Inflection: Encyclopedia II - Inflection - Inflection in various languages

Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including vowels, consonants, prosodic elements (such as tone, syllable length), and even smaller features, such as nasality (on vowels). The sound alternations may be used inflectionally or derivationally. The particular function of a given alternation will depend on the language. Apophony - Vowel apophony ablaut. Apophony often involves vowels. Indo-European ablaut (also commonly called Indo-European vowel gradation) is very well known. Th ...

See also:

Apophony, Apophony - Description, Apophony - Types of apophony, Apophony - Vowel apophony ablaut, Apophony - Prosodic apophony, Apophony - Consonant apophony mutation, Apophony - Vowel alternation in Indo-European, Apophony - Apophony vs. transfixation root-and-pattern, Apophony - Replacive morphemes & apophony, Apophony - Ablaut vs. umlaut, Apophony - Ablaut-motivated compounding, Apophony - Bibliography

Read more here: » Apophony: Encyclopedia II - Apophony - Types of apophony

English has a no longer productive process of voicing stem-final fricatives, which is encountered both in noun-verb pairs and in the formation of plural nouns. belief - believe life - live proof - prove strife - strive thief - thieve ba[θ] - ba[ð]e breaSee also:

Consonant mutation, Consonant mutation - Celtic, Consonant mutation - Japanese, Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay, Consonant mutation - Southern Paiute, Consonant mutation - Fula, Consonant mutation - Finnish, Consonant mutation - Dholuo, Consonant mutation - English, Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew, Consonant mutation - In fiction, Consonant mutation - Sindarin, Consonant mutation - Mutation vs. sandhi, Consonant mutation - Bibliography

Read more here: » Consonant mutation: Encyclopedia II - Consonant mutation - English

Old English nouns were declined – that is, the ending of the noun changed to reflect its function in the sentence. There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental. The nominative case indicated the subject of the sentence, for example se cyning means 'the king'. It was also used for direct address. Adjectives in the predicate (qualifying a noun on the other side of 'to be') were also in the nominative. The accusative indicated the direct object of the sentence, for exampl ...

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Old English morphology, Old English morphology - Verbs, Old English morphology - Strong verbs, Old English morphology - Weak verbs, Old English morphology - Anomalous verbs, Old English morphology - Nouns, Old English morphology - Strong nouns, Old English morphology - Weak nouns, Old English morphology - Irregular strong nouns, Old English morphology - Nouns of relationship, Old English morphology - Adjectives, Old English morphology - Determiners, Old English morphology - Pronouns, Old English morphology - Personal pronouns, Old English morphology - Prepositions

Read more here: » Old English morphology: Encyclopedia II - Old English morphology - Nouns

Adjectives in Old English are declined using the same categories as nouns: five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), and two numbers (singular, plural). In addition, they can be declined either strong or weak. The weak forms are used in the presence of a definite or possessive determiner, while the strong ones are used in other situations. The weak forms are identical to those for nouns, while the strong forms use a combination of noun and pronoun endings: For the '-u/–' forms ab ...

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Old English morphology, Old English morphology - Verbs, Old English morphology - Strong verbs, Old English morphology - Weak verbs, Old English morphology - Anomalous verbs, Old English morphology - Nouns, Old English morphology - Strong nouns, Old English morphology - Weak nouns, Old English morphology - Irregular strong nouns, Old English morphology - Nouns of relationship, Old English morphology - Adjectives, Old English morphology - Determiners, Old English morphology - Pronouns, Old English morphology - Personal pronouns, Old English morphology - Prepositions

Read more here: » Old English morphology: Encyclopedia II - Old English morphology - Adjectives

Old English had two main determiners: se, which could function as both 'the' or 'that', and þes for 'this'. Modern English 'that' descends from the neuter nominative/accusative form, and 'the' from the plural nominative/accusative form. The feminine nominative form was probably the source of Modern English 'she.' ...

See also:

Old English morphology, Old English morphology - Verbs, Old English morphology - Strong verbs, Old English morphology - Weak verbs, Old English morphology - Anomalous verbs, Old English morphology - Nouns, Old English morphology - Strong nouns, Old English morphology - Weak nouns, Old English morphology - Irregular strong nouns, Old English morphology - Nouns of relationship, Old English morphology - Adjectives, Old English morphology - Determiners, Old English morphology - Pronouns, Old English morphology - Personal pronouns, Old English morphology - Prepositions

Read more here: » Old English morphology: Encyclopedia II - Old English morphology - Determiners

For details see the articles on the individual languages: Breton language, Cornish language, Irish initial mutations, Manx language, Scottish Gaelic language, Welsh morphology. The Celtic languages are well known for their initial consonant mutations. The individual languages vary on the number of mutations available: Scottish Gaelic and Manx have one, Irish has two, and the Brythonic languages Welsh, Breton and Cornish each have three (but not the same three). Additionally, Irish and the Brythonic languages have so-called "mix ...

See also:

Consonant mutation, Consonant mutation - Celtic, Consonant mutation - Japanese, Consonant mutation - Indonesian/Malay, Consonant mutation - Southern Paiute, Consonant mutation - Fula, Consonant mutation - Finnish, Consonant mutation - Dholuo, Consonant mutation - English, Consonant mutation - Modern Hebrew, Consonant mutation - In fiction, Consonant mutation - Sindarin, Consonant mutation - Mutation vs. sandhi, Consonant mutation - Bibliography

Read more here: » Consonant mutation: Encyclopedia II - Consonant mutation - Celtic