Kirchhoff

Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of Costa Rica that gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning an approximately 3,000-year period before the European discovery of the New World by Columbus. Mesoamerican is the adjective generally used to refer to that group of Pre-Columbian cultures. This refers to an environmental area occupied by an assortment of ancient cultures that shared religious beliefs, art, architecture, and technology that made them exc ...

Including:

• Mesoamerica - Bibliography

Read more here: » Mesoamerica: Encyclopedia - Mesoamerica

Sir William Crookes, OM , FRS (June 17, 1832 – April 4, 1919) was an English chemist and physicist. Sir William attended the Royal College of Chemistry in London, worked on spectroscopy. In 1861 he discovered a previously unknown element with a bright green emission line in its spectrum and named the element thallium, from the Greek thallos, a green shoot. Crookes also identified the first known sample of helium, in 1895. He was the inventor of the Crookes radiometer, which today is made and sold as a novelty it ...

Including:

• William Crookes - Early days
• William Crookes - Rise as prominent chemist
• William Crookes - English Knight role as president of scientific institutions and final days
• William Crookes - Legacy
• William Crookes - Trivia
• William Crookes - External articles

Read more here: » William Crookes: Encyclopedia - William Crookes

Like the other alkali metals, sodium metal is a soft, light-weight, silvery white, reactive metal. Owing to its extreme reactivity, in nature it occurs only combined into compounds, and never as a pure elemental metal. Sodium metal floats on water, and reacts violently with it releasing heat, flammable hydrogen gas and caustic sodium hydroxide solution. Sodium ions are necessary for regulation of blood and body fluids, transmission of nerve impulses, heart activity, and certain metabolic functions. It is widely considered that most pe ...

See also:

Sodium, Sodium - Notable characteristics, Sodium - Applications, Sodium - History, Sodium - Occurrence, Sodium - Compounds, Sodium - Isotopes, Sodium - Precautions, Sodium - Physiology and sodium ions

Read more here: » Sodium: Encyclopedia II - Sodium - Notable characteristics

Heidelberg - Villages. North of the River Neckar: Peterstal and Ziegelhausen, Handschuhsheim and Dossenheim. Central: Altstadt, Bergheim, Weststadt, Schlierbach, Kohlhof. Southern: Bergheim, Ochsenkopf, Wieblingen, Grenzhof, Bahnstadt (new 2005), Rohrbach, Kirchheim, Hasenleiser, Boxberg, Rohrbach-Süd, Emmertsgrund, Pfaffengrund. Heidelberg - Towns. Mannheim, Speyer, Worms, Schwetzingen (the site of the Summerpalais, with the local Elector's English style gardens), Frankfurt, ...

See also:

Heidelberg, Heidelberg - History, Heidelberg - Well-known Heidelbergers, Heidelberg - Around Heidelberg, Heidelberg - Villages, Heidelberg - Towns, Heidelberg - Landscape, Heidelberg - United States Military Installations, Heidelberg - Events, Heidelberg - International friendship

Read more here: » Heidelberg: Encyclopedia II - Heidelberg - Around Heidelberg

The work of Crookes extended over the regions of both chemistry and physics. Its salient characteristic was the originality of conception of his experiments, and the skill of their execution. It is probably just to say that his theoretical speculations, imaginative and stimulating as they may have been, were of less permanent importance. William Crookes - Chemistry. He was always more effective in experiment than in interpretation. His first great discovery was that of the element thallium, announced in 1861. By this work his reputation became firmly established, and he was elected a f ...

See also:

William Crookes, William Crookes - Life, William Crookes - Early days, William Crookes - Rise as prominent chemist, William Crookes - English Knight role as president of scientific institutions and final days, William Crookes - Legacy, William Crookes - Chemistry, William Crookes - Physics, William Crookes - Parapsychology, William Crookes - Trivia, William Crookes - External articles

Read more here: » William Crookes: Encyclopedia II - William Crookes - Legacy

Gibbs' scientific career can be divided into four phases: Until 1879: theoretical thermodynamics. 1880-1884: vector analysis. 1882 to 1889: optics and the electromagnetic theory of light. After 1889: statistical mechanics, laying a foundation and "providing a mathematical framework for quantum theory and for Maxwell's theories" [1] He also wrote classic textbooks on these subjects. See also:

Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Quotations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Cited material, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

Read more here: » Josiah Willard Gibbs: Encyclopedia II - Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography

Gibbs' scientific career can be divided into four phases. Up until 1879, he worked on the theory of thermodynamics. From 1880 to 1884, he worked on the field of vector analysis. From 1882 to 1889, he worked on optics and the electromagnetic theory of light. After 1889, he worked on statistical mechanics, laying a foundation and "providing a mathematical framework for quantum theory and for Maxwell's theories" [1]; he also produced classic textbooks on the matter. See also:

Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Death and afterwards, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Citations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

Read more here: » Josiah Willard Gibbs: Encyclopedia II - Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography

The work of Crookes extended over the regions of both chemistry and physics. Its salient characteristic was the originality of conception of his experiments, and the skill of their execution. It is probably just to say that his theoretical speculations, imaginative and stimulating as they may have been, were of less permanent importance. He was always more effective in experiment than in interpretation. His first great discovery was that of the element thallium, announced in 1861. By this work his reputation became firmly established, and he was elected a f ...

See also:

William Crookes, William Crookes - Early days, William Crookes - Rise as prominent chemist, William Crookes - English Knight role as president of scientific institutions and final days, William Crookes - Legacy, William Crookes - Trivia, William Crookes - External articles

Read more here: » William Crookes: Encyclopedia II - William Crookes - Legacy

Heidelberg - Villages. North of the River Neckar: Peterstal and Ziegelhausen, Handschuhsheim and Dossenheim. Central: Altstadt, Bergheim, Weststadt, Schlierbach, Kohlhof. Southern: Bergheim, Ochsenkopf, Wieblingen, Grenzhof, Bahnstadt (new 2005), Rohrbach, Kirchheim, Hasenleiser, Boxberg, Rohrbach-Süd, Emmertsgrund. Heidelberg - Towns. Mannheim, Speyer, Worms, Schwetzingen (the site of the Summerpalais, with the local Elector's English style gardens), Frankfurt, ...

See also:

Heidelberg, Heidelberg - History, Heidelberg - Well-known Heidelbergers, Heidelberg - Around Heidelberg, Heidelberg - Villages, Heidelberg - Towns, Heidelberg - Landscape, Heidelberg - United States Military Installations, Heidelberg - Events, Heidelberg - International friendship

Read more here: » Heidelberg: Encyclopedia II - Heidelberg - Around Heidelberg

In content his work is distinguished by a certain definiteness and finality, and even of problems which, when he attacked them, were scarcely thought amenable to mathematical analysis, he has in many cases given solutions which once and for all settle the main principles. This fact must be ascribed to his extraordinary combination of mathematical power with experimental skill. From the time when in about 1840 he fitted up some simple physical apparatus in his rooms in Pembroke College, mathematics and experiment ever went hand in hand, aidin ...

See also:

George Gabriel Stokes, George Gabriel Stokes - Life, George Gabriel Stokes - Contributions to science, George Gabriel Stokes - List of Stokes eponymns, George Gabriel Stokes - Honours, George Gabriel Stokes - Published works, George Gabriel Stokes - Reference

Read more here: » George Gabriel Stokes: Encyclopedia II - George Gabriel Stokes - Contributions to science

Many of the results of Newton and Leibniz were known to mathematicians in Kerala, India almost 300 years previously. In 1835, Charles Whish published an article in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, in which he claimed that the work of the Kerala school "laid the foundation for a complete system of fluxions." It was not until the 1940s however, that historians of mathematics verified Whish's claims, but their work is still underplayed in modern accounts of history ...

See also:

History of calculus, History of calculus - Invention of Calculus, History of calculus - Controversy Newton Leibnitz... or Madhava?, History of calculus - Rigorous foundations, History of calculus - Integrals, History of calculus - Symbolic methods, History of calculus - Calculus of variations, History of calculus - Applications

Read more here: » History of calculus: Encyclopedia II - History of calculus - Invention of Calculus

There are thirteen isotopes of sodium that have been recognized. The only stable isotope is Na-23. Sodium has two radioactive cosmogenic isotopes (Na-22, half-life = 2.605 years; Na-24, half-life ≈ 15 hours). Acute neutron radiation exposure (e.g., from a nuclear criticality accident) converts some of the stable Na-23 in human blood plasma to Na-24. By measuring the concentration of this isotope, the neutron radiation do ...

See also:

Sodium, Sodium - Notable characteristics, Sodium - Applications, Sodium - History, Sodium - Occurrence, Sodium - Compounds, Sodium - Isotopes, Sodium - Precautions, Sodium - Physiology and sodium ions

Read more here: » Sodium: Encyclopedia II - Sodium - Isotopes

Recognition was slow in coming, in good part because Gibbs published mainly in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences, a journal, edited by his librarian brother-in-law, little read in the USA and less so in Europe. At first, only a few European theoretical physicists and chemists, such as the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, paid any attention to his work. Only when Gibbs's papers were translated into German (then the leading language for chemistry) by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1892, and into French by Henri Louis le Cha ...

See also:

Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Quotations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Cited material, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

Read more here: » Josiah Willard Gibbs: Encyclopedia II - Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition

George Stokes was the youngest son of the Reverend Gabriel Stokes, rector of Skreen, County Sligo, where he was born. After attending schools in Skreen, Dublin and Bristol, he matriculated in 1837 at Pembroke College, Cambridge, where four years later, on graduating as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, he was elected to a fellowship. This he had to vacate by the statutes of that society when he married in 1857, but twelve years later, under new statutes, he was re-elected. He retained his place on the foundation until 1902, when on ...

See also:

George Gabriel Stokes, George Gabriel Stokes - Life, George Gabriel Stokes - Contributions to science, George Gabriel Stokes - List of Stokes eponymns, George Gabriel Stokes - Honours, George Gabriel Stokes - Published works, George Gabriel Stokes - Reference

Read more here: » George Gabriel Stokes: Encyclopedia II - George Gabriel Stokes - Life

William Crookes - Early days. William Crookes was born in London, he was the eldest son of Joseph Crookes, a tailor of north-country origin, by his second wife, Mary Scott. William received some instruction at a grammar school at Chippenham, but his scientific career began when, at the age of fifteen, he entered the Royal College of Chemistry in Hanover Square, London, under August Wilhelm von Hofmann. William Cro ...

See also:

William Crookes, William Crookes - Life, William Crookes - Early days, William Crookes - Rise as prominent chemist, William Crookes - English Knight role as president of scientific institutions and final days, William Crookes - Legacy, William Crookes - Chemistry, William Crookes - Physics, William Crookes - Parapsychology, William Crookes - Trivia, William Crookes - External articles

Read more here: » William Crookes: Encyclopedia II - William Crookes - Life

Sodium chloride, better known as common salt, is the most common compound of sodium, but sodium occurs in many other minerals, such as amphibole, cryolite, halite, soda niter and zeolite. Sodium compounds are important to the chemical, glass, metal, paper, petroleum, soap, and textile industries. Soap is generally a sodium salt of certain fatty acids. The sodium compounds that are the most important to industry are common salt (NaCl), soda ash (Na2CO3), baking soda (NaHCO3), caustic soda (NaOH), Chile ...

See also:

Sodium, Sodium - Notable characteristics, Sodium - Applications, Sodium - History, Sodium - Occurrence, Sodium - Compounds, Sodium - Isotopes, Sodium - Precautions, Sodium - Physiology and sodium ions

Read more here: » Sodium: Encyclopedia II - Sodium - Compounds

Sodium is relatively abundant in stars and the D spectral lines of this element are among the most prominent in star light. Sodium makes up about 2.6% by weight of the Earth's crust making it the fourth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. At the end of the 19th century, sodium was chemically prepared by heating sodium carbonate with carbon to 1100 °C. Na2CO3 (liquid) + 2C (solid, coke ...

See also:

Sodium, Sodium - Notable characteristics, Sodium - Applications, Sodium - History, Sodium - Occurrence, Sodium - Compounds, Sodium - Isotopes, Sodium - Precautions, Sodium - Physiology and sodium ions

Read more here: » Sodium: Encyclopedia II - Sodium - Occurrence

After 1880 he lived at 7 Kensington Park Gardens, where in his private laboratory all his later work was carried out. Crookes's life was one of unbroken scientific activity. He was never one of those who gain influence by popular exposition; neither was he esoteric. The breadth of his interests, ranging over pure and applied science, economic and practical problems, and psychical research, made him a well-known personality, and he received many public and academic honours. He was knighted in 1897, and in 1910 received the order ...

See also:

William Crookes, William Crookes - Early days, William Crookes - Rise as prominent chemist, William Crookes - English Knight role as president of scientific institutions and final days, William Crookes - Legacy, William Crookes - Trivia, William Crookes - External articles

Read more here: » William Crookes: Encyclopedia II - William Crookes - English Knight role as president of scientific institutions and final days

From 1850 to 1854 he filled the position of assistant in the college, and soon embarked upon original work, not indeed in the region of organic chemistry whither the inspiration of his distinguished teacher might have been expected to lead him, but on certain new compounds of the element selenium, the selenocyanides. These form the subject of his first published papers in 1851. Leaving the Royal College, he became in 1854 superintendent of the meteorological department at the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford, and in 1855 was appointed ...

See also:

William Crookes, William Crookes - Early days, William Crookes - Rise as prominent chemist, William Crookes - English Knight role as president of scientific institutions and final days, William Crookes - Legacy, William Crookes - Trivia, William Crookes - External articles

Read more here: » William Crookes: Encyclopedia II - William Crookes - Rise as prominent chemist

Niels Henrik Abel seems to have been the first to consider in a general way the question as to what differential expressions can be integrated in a finite form by the aid of ordinary functions, an investigation extended by Liouville. Cauchy early undertook the general theory of determining definite integrals, and the subject has been prominent during the 19th century. Frullani's theorem (1821), Bierens de Haan's work on the theory (1862) and his elaborate tables (1867), Dirichlet's lectures (1858) embodied in Meyer's treatise (1871), and num ...

See also:

History of calculus, History of calculus - Invention of Calculus, History of calculus - Controversy Newton Leibnitz... or Madhava?, History of calculus - Rigorous foundations, History of calculus - Integrals, History of calculus - Symbolic methods, History of calculus - Calculus of variations, History of calculus - Applications

Read more here: » History of calculus: Encyclopedia II - History of calculus - Integrals