Islamic conquests

During the period of Rajput supremacy in north India, which lasted from the seventh to the twelfth centuries, the first Muslim effort toward invasion was made in 664. Forces led by Mohalib began launching raids from Persia, striking Multan in the southern Punjab in what is today Pakistan. Mohalib penetrated as far as the ancient capital of the Maili and returned with prisoners of war but he didn't come to conquer. Later, in 711, the Umayyad caliph in Damascus sent an expedition to Baluchistan (an arid region on the Iranian Plateau in ...

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Islamic conquests, Islamic conquests - Byzantine-Arab Wars: 632-718, Islamic conquests - Conquest of Persia: 636-651, Islamic conquests - Conquest of Afghanistan: 637-709, Islamic conquests - Conquest of North Africa: 640-709, Islamic conquests - Conquest of South Asia: 664-712, Islamic conquests - Conquest of Iberia: 711-718, Islamic conquests - End of the Conquests: 718-750

Read more here: » Islamic conquests: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquests - Conquest of South Asia: 664-712

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Including:

• History of Islam - Introduction
• History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography
• History of Islam - Muhammad
• History of Islam - The spread of Islam
• History of Islam - The Fitna
• History of Islam - The Second Fitna
• History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power
• History of Islam - The decline of political unity
• History of Islam - The Ottoman empire
• History of Islam - Three Muslim empires
• History of Islam - The 20th century
• History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East
• History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis
• History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan
• History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel
• History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East
• History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions
• History of Islam - Present day
• History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism
• History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth
• History of Islam - Chronology
• History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers
• History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia - History of Islam

The modern age brought radical technological and organizational changes to Europe and Islamic countries found themselves less modern when compared to the many western nations. Europe's state-based government and rampant colonization allowed the West to dominate the globe economically and forced Islamic countries to question change. History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East. Islamic territories were granted at least nominal independence after the end of the First Wor ...

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History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - The 20th century

Since the 1st century BCE, the border between the Roman (later Byzantine) and Parthian (later Sassanid) empires had been the Euphrates river. The border was constantly contested. Most battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the hilly regions of the north, as the vast Arabian or Syrian Desert separated the rival empires in the south. The only dangers expected from the south were occasional raids by nomadic Arab tribesmen. Both empires therefore allied themselves with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, which serve ...

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Islamic conquest of Persia, Islamic conquest of Persia - Persia before the conquest, Islamic conquest of Persia - Balance between Persia and Byzantium swings wildly, Islamic conquest of Persia - Assassination of Khusrau II and a succession of weak rulers, Islamic conquest of Persia - Revolt of the Arab client states, Islamic conquest of Persia - Rise of the Islamic empire, Islamic conquest of Persia - Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia, Islamic conquest of Persia - The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, Islamic conquest of Persia - Conquest of the Iranian plateau, Islamic conquest of Persia - Occupation

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Persia: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Persia - Persia before the conquest

Already in the last years of the life of Muhammad, organised raids began attacking the Sāsānian and Byzantine frontiers. Although these expeditions slowed during the consolidation of the Arabian peninsula under the first Caliph Abū Bakr (the Riddah wars), the latter's successor `Umar ibn al-Khattāb turned his attention northwards, initiating the Arab conquests. After a number of small successes and setbacks, `Umar decided to replace the capable general Khālid ibn al-Walīd with an important member of the Quraysh tribe, and sent a large Arab force towards Iraq (part of the Sāsānian ...

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Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Traditional Muslim account, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Modern usage of al-Qādisiyyah, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Qādisiyyat-Saddām: The Iran-Iraq War, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Other examples of the usage of al-Qādisiyyah, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Academic and primary references

Read more here: » Battle of al-Qādisiyyah: Encyclopedia II - Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Traditional Muslim account

Early in the sixteenth century, Babur, who was descended from Timur on his father's side and from Genghis Khan on his mother's, was driven out of his father's kingdom in the Ferghana Valley (which straddles contemporary Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan) by the Shaybani Uzbeks, who had wrested Samarkand from the Timurids. After several unsuccessful attempts to regain Ferghana and Samarkand, Babur crossed the Amu Darya and captured Kabul from the last of its Mongol rulers in 1504. In his invasion of Delhi Sultanate of India in 1526, Babur ...

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Islamic conquest of Afghanistan, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - The Islamic Conquest, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Ghaznavid and Ghorid Rule, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mongol Rule 1220-1506, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mughal-Safavid Rivalry ca. 1500-1747

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Afghanistan: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mughal-Safavid Rivalry ca. 1500-1747

Academic studies of the Battle have revealed numerous topoi that make up a common schema of the Arab Muslim conquests (see Donner; Noth). These literary layers appear to have accumulated since the period immediately following the Battle, when story-tellers (qussās) embellished their narrative, often in an attempt to glorify past ancestors. The modern usage of the al-Qādisiyyah, thus, has heavy emotional baggage and invoking its name grants deep meaning. Battl ...

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Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Traditional Muslim account, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Modern usage of al-Qādisiyyah, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Qādisiyyat-Saddām: The Iran-Iraq War, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Other examples of the usage of al-Qādisiyyah, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Academic and primary references

Read more here: » Battle of al-Qādisiyyah: Encyclopedia II - Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - Modern usage of al-Qādisiyyah

Arabia before Muhammad was scantly populated by a number of Arabic-speaking peoples. Some were Bedouin, pastoral nomads organized in tribes. Some were agriculturalists, living either in oases in the north, or in the more fertile and thickly settled areas to the south (now Yemen and Oman). At that time the majority of Arabs followed various polytheistic religions, although a few tribes followed Judaism, Christianity (including Nestorians) or Zoroastrianism. The city of Mecca was a religious center for some of the northern ...

See also:

History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - Muhammad

Followings years of conquest in China and Central Asia, the Mongol Empire had emerged as a major world power of its day and attempted to co-exist with some of their neighbors including the empire the Khwarezmia Shah (which included what is today Afghanistan) and sent emissaries to establish diplomatic and trading links. As either a bluff to dissuade the Mongols from aggression or as simply a haughty sign of disrespect, the Khwarezmia Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad II had the diplomats executed and sent their heads back to the Mongols and this prom ...

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Islamic conquest of Afghanistan, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - The Islamic Conquest, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Ghaznavid and Ghorid Rule, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mongol Rule 1220-1506, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mughal-Safavid Rivalry ca. 1500-1747

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Afghanistan: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mongol Rule 1220-1506

Out of the Samanid Dynasty came the first great Islamic empire of the region, the Ghaznavid Empire, whose warriors, forged an empire that spanned much of Iranian plateau and Central Asia and conducted many successful raids into South Asia. Their military incursions assured the domination of Sunni Islam in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of India. The most renowned of the dynasty's rulers was Mahmud, who consolidated control over the areas south of the Amu Darya then carried out devastating raids into India - looting Hindu temple ...

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Islamic conquest of Afghanistan, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - The Islamic Conquest, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Ghaznavid and Ghorid Rule, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mongol Rule 1220-1506, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mughal-Safavid Rivalry ca. 1500-1747

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Afghanistan: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Ghaznavid and Ghorid Rule

In 637, five years after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, Arab Muslims shattered the might of the Iranian Sassanians at the Battles of al-Qādisiyyah and Nahavand. The invaders began to move towards the lands east of Iran: Herat was captured in 652. By 709 all of Aryana came under Arab control and encountered pockets of resistance from local tribesmen for centuries. In addition, Tang China and Tibet mounted an opposition to the Arab invasion to prevent their incursions into Central Asia. Central Asia and eastern Iran were nominally ...

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Islamic conquest of Afghanistan, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - The Islamic Conquest, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Ghaznavid and Ghorid Rule, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mongol Rule 1220-1506, Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - Mughal-Safavid Rivalry ca. 1500-1747

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Afghanistan: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Afghanistan - The Islamic Conquest

Arabia before Muhammad was scantly populated by a number of Arabic-speaking peoples. Some were Bedouin, pastoral nomads organized in tribes. Some were agriculturalists, living either in oases in the north, or in the more fertile and thickly settled areas to the south (now Yemen and Oman). At that time the majority of Arabs followed various polytheistic religions, although a few tribes followed Judaism, Christianity (including Nestorians) or Zoroastrianism. The city of Mecca was a religious center for some of the northern Arabian polytheists, ...

See also:

History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - Muhammad

Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs were to settle in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates. They were not to marry non-Arabs, or learn their language, or read their literature. The new non-Muslim subjects, or dhimmi, were to pay a special tax, the jizya, and be subject to various restrictions of occupation, worship, and dress (Bashear 1997, p. 117). Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few cen ...

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Islamic conquest of Persia, Islamic conquest of Persia - Persia before the conquest, Islamic conquest of Persia - Balance between Persia and Byzantium swings wildly, Islamic conquest of Persia - Assassination of Khusrau II and a succession of weak rulers, Islamic conquest of Persia - Revolt of the Arab client states, Islamic conquest of Persia - Rise of the Islamic empire, Islamic conquest of Persia - Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia, Islamic conquest of Persia - The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, Islamic conquest of Persia - Conquest of the Iranian plateau, Islamic conquest of Persia - Occupation

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Persia: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Persia - Occupation

After Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr, his father-in-law and one of the earliest converts, assumed leadership of the Muslim community. This is still a matter of contention among Muslims; the largest sect of Islam, the Sunnis, and the various Shi'a sects, disagree radically as to the history and significance of Abu Bakr's succession to what was later called the caliphate. For further discussion, see Succession to Muhammad. Abu Bakr spent most of his brief caliphate fighting the Ridda Wars, bringing rebellious Arabian tribes to heel. After d ...

See also:

History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - The spread of Islam

Like most world religions, Islam's historical development has had a clear impact on the political, economic, and military history of areas inside and outside what are considered its primary geographic zones of reach (see Islamic world). As with Christendom, the concept of an Islamic world may be more or less useful in looking at different periods of history. An important strain in Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or ummah, and this component is reflected in the behavior of a number of actors in history. The history of Islam as a religion is closely rela ...

See also:

History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - Introduction

It is said that the caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the Zagros mountains and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. Umar's generals and warriors pushed for further action. They argued that Yazdegerd could again become a threat if he ...

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Islamic conquest of Persia, Islamic conquest of Persia - Persia before the conquest, Islamic conquest of Persia - Balance between Persia and Byzantium swings wildly, Islamic conquest of Persia - Assassination of Khusrau II and a succession of weak rulers, Islamic conquest of Persia - Revolt of the Arab client states, Islamic conquest of Persia - Rise of the Islamic empire, Islamic conquest of Persia - Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia, Islamic conquest of Persia - The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, Islamic conquest of Persia - Conquest of the Iranian plateau, Islamic conquest of Persia - Occupation

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Persia: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Persia - Conquest of the Iranian plateau

The majority of the population of this new empire was non-Muslim, and aside from a protection tax (jizya) and other restrictions, the conquered people found their religions tolerated. Indeed, Muslim authorities often discouraged conversions, since this would erode the tax base. Under the Umayyads, would-be converts had to find an Arab patron who would adopt them into his tribe. Once they were honorary Arabs they could convert. Nevertheless, most of the populace eventually converted to Islam. Whether this was a fast or a slow movement is a topic hotly debated in academia, ...

See also:

History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power

The collapse of the Sassanid polity after the death of Khusrau II left the Persians in a weak position vis-a-vis Arab invaders. At first the Muslims merely attempted to consolidate their rule over the fringes of the desert and the Lakhmid Arabs. The border town of Hira fell to the Muslims in 633. The Sassanids had reorganized under a new king, Yazdegerd III, and mounted a counterattack. They won a major victory at the Battle of the Bridge in October 634. After a decisive Muslim victory against the Byzantines, in Syria at the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, the second caliph, Umar, wa ...

See also:

Islamic conquest of Persia, Islamic conquest of Persia - Persia before the conquest, Islamic conquest of Persia - Balance between Persia and Byzantium swings wildly, Islamic conquest of Persia - Assassination of Khusrau II and a succession of weak rulers, Islamic conquest of Persia - Revolt of the Arab client states, Islamic conquest of Persia - Rise of the Islamic empire, Islamic conquest of Persia - Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia, Islamic conquest of Persia - The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, Islamic conquest of Persia - Conquest of the Iranian plateau, Islamic conquest of Persia - Occupation

Read more here: » Islamic conquest of Persia: Encyclopedia II - Islamic conquest of Persia - Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia

The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. The emirates, still recognizing the theoretical leadership of the caliphs, drifted into independence, and a brief revival of control was ended with the establishment of two rival caliphates: the Fatimids in north Africa, and the Umayyad's Caliphate of Cordoba in Spain (the emirs there being descended from an escaped member of that family). Eventually the Abbasids ruled as puppets for the Buwayhid emirs. A series of new invasions swept over the Islamic world. First, the newly converte ...

See also:

History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - The decline of political unity

History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism. See liberal movements within Islam, Islamic fundamentalism, Islam as a political movement and Islamism. History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth. See Islamist terrorism, militant Islam, and Jihad ...

See also:

History of Islam, History of Islam - Introduction, History of Islam - Note on early Islamic historiography, History of Islam - Muhammad, History of Islam - The spread of Islam, History of Islam - The Fitna, History of Islam - The Second Fitna, History of Islam - The zenith of Islamic power, History of Islam - The decline of political unity, History of Islam - The Ottoman empire, History of Islam - Three Muslim empires, History of Islam - The 20th century, History of Islam - The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East, History of Islam - The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis, History of Islam - Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan, History of Islam - The creation of the state of Israel, History of Islam - Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East, History of Islam - Two Iranian revolutions, History of Islam - Present day, History of Islam - Reformist Islam vs. Islamism, History of Islam - Islamism the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth, History of Islam - Chronology, History of Islam - Dynasties of Islamic Rulers, History of Islam - References and further reading

Read more here: » History of Islam: Encyclopedia II - History of Islam - Present day