International trade

Ancient Buddhist and Brahmanical texts reveal that Uttarapatha was the name of northern division of Jambudvipa of ancient Indian traditions. Initially, the term Uttarapatha referred to the northern high road ..the main trade route that followed along the river Ganges, crossed the Indo-Gangetic watershed, ran through the Punjab to Taxila (Gandhara) and further to Zariaspa or Balkh (Bactria) in Central Asia. The eastern terminus of the Uttarapatha was Tamraliptika or Tamluk located at the mouth of Gang ...

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Business refers to at least three closely related commercial topics. The first is a commercial, professional or industrial organization or enterprise, generally referred to as "a business." The second is commercial, professional, and industrial activity generally, as in "business continues to evolve as markets change." Finally, business can be used to refer to a particular area of economic activity, such as the "record business" or the "computer business" (see Industry). This article is concerned primarily with the first definition of individual businesses, but also contains links to general business and management ...

Including:

• Business - Types of Businesses
• Business - Business departments
• Business - Business and Government
• Business - Business and Management

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The stated aim of the WTO is to promote free trade, stimulate economic growth and hence make people's lives more prosperous. Many believe that free trade is not the right way to make people's lives more prosperous but only grants the rich the means to become richer through the loss of the general population. The WTO also promotes economic globalization, which anti-globalization activists consider problematic. WTO treaties have been accused of a partial and unfair bias toward multinational corporations and wealthy nations. The WTO is critic ...

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World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization - History, World Trade Organization - Mission, World Trade Organization - Structure, World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations, World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution, World Trade Organization - Membership, World Trade Organization - Agreements, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA, World Trade Organization - General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS, World Trade Organization - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs Agreement, World Trade Organization - Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary SPS Agreement, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade TBT, World Trade Organization - Chronology, World Trade Organization - Critique, World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences, World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 4th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 5th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 6th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - References and further readings

Read more here: » World Trade Organization: Encyclopedia II - World Trade Organization - Critique

Relative endowments of the factors of production (land, labour, and capital) determine a country's comparative advantage. Countries have comparative advantage in those goods for which the required factors of production are relatively abundant. This is because the prices of goods are ultimately determined by the prices of their inputs. Goods that require inputs that are locally abundant will be cheaper to produc ...

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Heckscher-Ohlin model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Features of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Theoretical development of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Original publication, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The 2x2x2 model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Extensions, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Assumptions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Both countries have identical production technology, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Production output must have constant Return to Scale, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The technologies used to produce the two commodities differ, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Commodities have the same price everywhere, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Perfect internal competition, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Conclusions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Rybczynski theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Stolper-Samuelson theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Factor-Price Equalization theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The implications of factor-proportion changes, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Econometric testing of H-O model theorems

Read more here: » Heckscher-Ohlin model: Encyclopedia II - Heckscher-Ohlin model - Features of the model

The act was championed by Senator Reed Smoot, a Republican from Utah, and Representative Willis C. Hawley, a Republican from Oregon. President Herbert Hoover had asked Congress for a downward revision in rates, but Congress raised rates instead. While many economists urged a veto, Hoover thought he could finesse the law through the U. S. Tariff Commission, and signed the bill. Opponents of the measure organized a petition signed by 1,000 economists who expresse ...

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Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act - Congressional Sponsors, Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act - Amount of the Tariff, Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act - The Smoot-Hawley Tariff in pop culture, Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act - Footnotes, Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act - Other articles, Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act - External links, Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act - Bibliography

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World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference. The inaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore issues". World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference. World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference. The third conference ended in failure ...

See also:

World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization - History, World Trade Organization - Mission, World Trade Organization - Structure, World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations, World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution, World Trade Organization - Membership, World Trade Organization - Agreements, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA, World Trade Organization - General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS, World Trade Organization - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs Agreement, World Trade Organization - Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary SPS Agreement, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade TBT, World Trade Organization - Chronology, World Trade Organization - Critique, World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences, World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 4th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 5th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 6th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - References and further readings

Read more here: » World Trade Organization: Encyclopedia II - World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences

The Ricardian model of comparative advantage has trade ultimately motivated by differences in labour productivity using different technologies. Heckscher and Ohlin didn't require production technology to vary between countries, so (in the interests of simplicity) the H-O model has identical production technology everywhere. Ricardo considered a single factor of production (labour) and would not have been able to produce comparative advantage without technological differences between countries (all nations would become autarkies ...

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Heckscher-Ohlin model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Features of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Theoretical development of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Original publication, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The 2x2x2 model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Extensions, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Assumptions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Both countries have identical production technology, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Production output must have constant Return to Scale, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The technologies used to produce the two commodities differ, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Commodities have the same price everywhere, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Perfect internal competition, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Conclusions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Rybczynski theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Stolper-Samuelson theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Factor-Price Equalization theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The implications of factor-proportion changes, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Econometric testing of H-O model theorems

Read more here: » Heckscher-Ohlin model: Encyclopedia II - Heckscher-Ohlin model - Theoretical development of the model

The results of this work has been the formulation of certain named conclusions arising from the assumptions inherent in the model. These are known as: Heckscher-Ohlin model - Heckscher-Ohlin theorem. The exports of a capital-abundant country will be from Capital intensive industries, and labour-abundant countries will import such goods, exporting labour intensive goods in return. Competitive pressures within the H-O model produce this prediction fairly straightforwardly. Conveniently, this is an easily testable hypothesis.

See also:

Heckscher-Ohlin model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Features of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Theoretical development of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Original publication, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The 2x2x2 model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Extensions, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Assumptions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Both countries have identical production technology, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Production output must have constant Return to Scale, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The technologies used to produce the two commodities differ, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Commodities have the same price everywhere, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Perfect internal competition, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Conclusions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Rybczynski theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Stolper-Samuelson theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Factor-Price Equalization theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The implications of factor-proportion changes, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Econometric testing of H-O model theorems

Read more here: » Heckscher-Ohlin model: Encyclopedia II - Heckscher-Ohlin model - Conclusions of the model

Heckscher and Ohlin considered the Factor-Price Equalization theorem an econometric success because the large volume of international trade in the late 19th and early 20th centuries coincided with the convergence of commodity and factor prices worldwide. Modern econometric estimates have shown the model to perform poorly, however, and adjustments have been suggested, most importantly the assumption that technology ...

See also:

Heckscher-Ohlin model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Features of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Theoretical development of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Original publication, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The 2x2x2 model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Extensions, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Assumptions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Both countries have identical production technology, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Production output must have constant Return to Scale, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The technologies used to produce the two commodities differ, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital mobility within countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Capital immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Labour immobility between countries, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Commodities have the same price everywhere, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Perfect internal competition, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Conclusions of the model, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Rybczynski theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Stolper-Samuelson theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Factor-Price Equalization theorem, Heckscher-Ohlin model - The implications of factor-proportion changes, Heckscher-Ohlin model - Econometric testing of H-O model theorems

Read more here: » Heckscher-Ohlin model: Encyclopedia II - Heckscher-Ohlin model - Econometric testing of H-O model theorems

All WTO members may participate in all councils, committees, etc., except Appellate Body, Dispute Settlement panels, and plurilateral committees. Highest level: Ministerial Conference The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which has to meet at least every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade a ...

See also:

World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization - History, World Trade Organization - Mission, World Trade Organization - Structure, World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations, World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution, World Trade Organization - Membership, World Trade Organization - Agreements, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA, World Trade Organization - General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS, World Trade Organization - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs Agreement, World Trade Organization - Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary SPS Agreement, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade TBT, World Trade Organization - Chronology, World Trade Organization - Critique, World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences, World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 4th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 5th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 6th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - References and further readings

Read more here: » World Trade Organization: Encyclopedia II - World Trade Organization - Structure

While most international organisations operate on a one country, one vote or even a weighted voting basis, many WTO decisions, such as adopting agreements (and revisions to them) are officially determined by consensus of all member states. The advantage of consensus decision-making is that it encourages efforts to find the most widely acceptable decision. Main disadvantages include large time requirements and many rounds of negotiation to develop a consensus decision, and the tendency for final agreements to use ambiguous language on contentious ...

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World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization - History, World Trade Organization - Mission, World Trade Organization - Structure, World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations, World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution, World Trade Organization - Membership, World Trade Organization - Agreements, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA, World Trade Organization - General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS, World Trade Organization - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs Agreement, World Trade Organization - Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary SPS Agreement, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade TBT, World Trade Organization - Chronology, World Trade Organization - Critique, World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences, World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 4th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 5th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 6th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - References and further readings

Read more here: » World Trade Organization: Encyclopedia II - World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations

The WTO has 150 members (76 members at its foundation and a further 74 members joined over the following ten years). The 25 states of the European Union are represented also as the European Communities. Some non-sovereign autonomous entities of member states are included as separate members. The latest (as of 15 December 2005) member admitted being the Kingdom of Tonga on 15 December 2005 during the ministerial c ...

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World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization - History, World Trade Organization - Mission, World Trade Organization - Structure, World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations, World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution, World Trade Organization - Membership, World Trade Organization - Agreements, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA, World Trade Organization - General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS, World Trade Organization - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs Agreement, World Trade Organization - Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary SPS Agreement, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade TBT, World Trade Organization - Chronology, World Trade Organization - Critique, World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences, World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 4th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 5th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 6th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - References and further readings

Read more here: » World Trade Organization: Encyclopedia II - World Trade Organization - Membership

Apart from hosting negotiations on trade rules, the WTO also acts as an arbiter of disputes between member states over its rules. And unlike most other international organizations, the WTO has significant power to enforce its decisions through the authorisation or trade sanctions against members which fail to comply with its decisions. Member states can bring disputes to the WTO's Dispute Settlement ...

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World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization - History, World Trade Organization - Mission, World Trade Organization - Structure, World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations, World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution, World Trade Organization - Membership, World Trade Organization - Agreements, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA, World Trade Organization - General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS, World Trade Organization - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs Agreement, World Trade Organization - Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary SPS Agreement, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade TBT, World Trade Organization - Chronology, World Trade Organization - Critique, World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences, World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 4th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 5th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 6th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - References and further readings

Read more here: » World Trade Organization: Encyclopedia II - World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution

The WTO oversees about 30 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession. A list of WTO agreements can be found here A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows. World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA. The AoA came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domest ...

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World Trade Organization, World Trade Organization - History, World Trade Organization - Mission, World Trade Organization - Structure, World Trade Organization - Trade negotiations, World Trade Organization - Dispute resolution, World Trade Organization - Membership, World Trade Organization - Agreements, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Agriculture AoA, World Trade Organization - General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS, World Trade Organization - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs Agreement, World Trade Organization - Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary SPS Agreement, World Trade Organization - Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade TBT, World Trade Organization - Chronology, World Trade Organization - Critique, World Trade Organization - Ministerial conferences, World Trade Organization - 1st ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 2nd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 3rd ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 4th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 5th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - 6th ministerial conference, World Trade Organization - References and further readings

Read more here: » World Trade Organization: Encyclopedia II - World Trade Organization - Agreements

New Trade theorists challenge the assumption of diminishing returns to scale, and some argue that using protectionist measures to build up a huge industrial base in certain industries will then allow those sectors to dominate the world market (via a Network effect). They wondered whether free trade would have prevented the development of the Japanese auto industries in the 1950s, when quotas and regulations prevented import competition. Japanese companies were encouraged to import foreign production technology but wer ...

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New Trade Theory, New Trade Theory - The theory, New Trade Theory - The theory's impact, New Trade Theory - Econometric testing, New Trade Theory - History of the theory's development, New Trade Theory - Footnotes

Read more here: » New Trade Theory: Encyclopedia II - New Trade Theory - The theory

Europe: European Union (EU) Council of Europe European Free Trade Association European Space Agency European Patent Organisation Asia: Asian Cooperation Dialogue (ACD) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Gulf Cooperation Council Eurasia: Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) Eurasian Econom ...

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International organization, International organization - Examples of global organizations, International organization - Examples of regional organizations, International organization - Organizations formed on miscellaneous membership criteria, International organization - Financial international organizations

Read more here: » International organization: Encyclopedia II - International organization - Examples of regional organizations

International law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying states as the principal actors in the international legal system. As the existence of a state presupposes control and jurisdiction over territory, international law deals with the acquisition of territory, state immunity and the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other. The law is similarly concerned with the treatment of individuals within state boundaries. There is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with group rights, the treatment of alien ...

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International law, International law - The scope of international law, International law - Fundamental conflicts over international law, International law - Sources of international law, International law - Interpretation of International Law, International law - Enforcement by states, International law - Enforcement by international bodies, International law - History, International law - International legal theory, International law - Natural law, International law - Eclectic school, International law - Legal positivism, International law - Branches of international law, International law - Notes and references

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The GAP Inc. retail clothing corporation is a good example of a business that practices horizontal integration. GAP Inc. controls three distinct companies, Banana Republic, Old Navy, and the GAP brand itself. Each company has stores that market clothes tailored to appeal the needs of a different group. Banana Republic sells more expensive clothes with a more "upscale" image, the GAP sells "moderately" priced clothes that appeal to middle-aged men and women, and Old Navy sells "inexpensive" clothes geared towards children and teenagers. By using these three different companies, GAP Inc. has been very successful at control ...

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Horizontal integration, Horizontal integration - An example

Read more here: » Horizontal integration: Encyclopedia II - Horizontal integration - An example

Merchant banks, now so called, are in fact the original "banks". These were invented in the middle ages by Italian grain merchants. As the Lombardy merchants and bankers grew in stature on the back of the Lombard plains cereal crops many of the displaced Jews who had fled persecution in Spain after 613 entered the trade. They brought with them to the grain trade ancient practices that had grown to normalcy in the middle and far east, along the Silk Road, for the finance of long distance goods trades. The Jews could not hold land in Italy, so they entered the great trading piazzas and halls of Lombardy, along side the local traders, an ...

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Merchant bank, Merchant bank - History

Read more here: » Merchant bank: Encyclopedia II - Merchant bank - History

Oda Nobunaga - Young Nobunaga. In 1534, Nobunaga was born to regional daimyo Oda Nobuhide in the Shobata Castle. He was Nobuhide's third son; however, he was the first son not born to a concubine and so was the heir to the Oda clan and domain in the Owari province. He was made the master of Nagoya Castle at a young age, and was brought up under the tutelage of senior Oda retainer, Hirate Masahide, apart from his brother Nobuyuki. As a youth, Nobunaga was known for his eccentric behaviour and lack of restraint. He was even called the "Owari ...

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Oda Nobunaga, Oda Nobunaga - Life, Oda Nobunaga - Young Nobunaga, Oda Nobunaga - Unification of Owari Province, Oda Nobunaga - Battle of Okehazama, Oda Nobunaga - Tenka Fubu, Oda Nobunaga - Incident at Honnoji, Oda Nobunaga - Policies, Oda Nobunaga - Oda Nobunaga in Fiction, Oda Nobunaga - External link, Oda Nobunaga - The festival in Japan

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On January 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor by President Paul von Hindenburg after attempts by General Kurt von Schleicher to form a viable government failed. Hindenberg was put under pressure by Hitler through his son Oskar, as well as intrigue from former Chancellor Franz von Papen following his collection of participating financial interests. Even though the Nazi Party had gained the largest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, they had slim majority in parliament within the Papen-propos ...

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Nazi Germany, Nazi Germany - Chronology of events, Nazi Germany - Pre-War Politics 1933-1939, Nazi Germany - Consolidation of power, Nazi Germany - Social policy, Nazi Germany - Economic policy, Nazi Germany - World War II, Nazi Germany - Aftermath, Nazi Germany - Organization of the Third Reich, Nazi Germany - Head of State and Chief Executive, Nazi Germany - Cabinet and national authorities, Nazi Germany - Reich Offices, Nazi Germany - Reich Ministries, Nazi Germany - Occupation authorities, Nazi Germany - Legislative Branch, Nazi Germany - Military, Nazi Germany - Paramilitary organisations, Nazi Germany - National police, Nazi Germany - Political organizations, Nazi Germany - Service organizations, Nazi Germany - Religious organisations, Nazi Germany - Academic organizations, Nazi Germany - Prominent persons in Nazi Germany, Nazi Germany - Nazi Party and Nazi government leaders and officials, Nazi Germany - SS personnel, Nazi Germany - Military, Nazi Germany - Other, Nazi Germany - Noted victims, Nazi Germany - Noted refugees, Nazi Germany - Noted survivors

Read more here: » Nazi Germany: Encyclopedia II - Nazi Germany - Pre-War Politics 1933-1939