A wisdom archive on hinduism

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Introduction to Hinduism

Hinduism Beliefs

Hinduism Worship

Hindu Society

Hinduism and Death

Hinduism and Yoga

Ayurveda

Vedic Science

Hinduism Compared

Hindu Scriptures

Hindu Philosophy

Quick links related to Hinduism

Shruti (primary scriptures in Hinduism)

Smriti (other texts in Hinduism)

Concepts of Hinduism

Schools & systems in Hinduism

Traditional practices in Hinduism

Hinduism Rituals

Gurus and saints in Hinduism

Denominations in Hinduism

Hindu mythology

Hindu mythology II

Hindu deities:

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Hinduism Sitemap

Below are alphabetical sitemaps to koncepts related to Hinduism:

Hinduism Dictionary ,
Hinduism Dictionary - A-Z, Hinduism Dictionary - A, Hinduism Dictionary - B,  Hinduism Dictionary - C , Hinduism Dictionary - D, Hinduism Dictionary - E,  Hinduism Dictionary - F , Hinduism Dictionary - G, Hinduism Dictionary - H, Hinduism Dictionary - I , Hinduism Dictionary - J, Hinduism Dictionary - K,  Hinduism Dictionary - L , Hinduism Dictionary - M, Hinduism Dictionary - N,  Hinduism Dictionary - O , Hinduism Dictionary - P, Hinduism Dictionary - Q,  Hinduism Dictionary - R , Hinduism Dictionary - S, Hinduism Dictionary - T,  Hinduism Dictionary - U , Hinduism Dictionary - V, Hinduism Dictionary - W,  Hinduism Dictionary - X , Hinduism Dictionary - Y, Hinduism Dictionary - Z,

Interesting links with good reading

Below are some short introductions. Click on the blue hyperlinked word to get more related articles.


Advaita - (Sanskrit) "Non dual; not twofold." Nonduality or monism. The philosophical doctrine that Ultimate Reality consists of a one principal substance, or God. Opposite of dvaita, dualism. Advaita is the primary philosophical stance of the Vedic Upanishads, and of Hinduism, interpreted differently by the many rishis, gurus, panditas and philosophers.
See: dvaita-advaita, Vedanta.

Animism - The belief that everything (including inanimate objects) is alive with soul or spirit, a conviction pervasive among most indigenous (tribal/pagan/shamanistic) faiths, including Hinduism, Shintoism and spiritualism.

Atman - (Sanskrit) "The soul; the breath; the principle of life and sensation." The soul in its entirety - as the soul body (anandamaya kosha) and its essence (Parashakti and Parasiva). One of Hinduism''s most fundamental tenets is that we are the atman, not the physical body, emotions, external mind or personality. In Hindu scriptures, atman sometimes refers to the ego-personality, and its meaning must be determined according to context. The Atma Upanishad (13) describes atman, or purusha, as threefold: bahyatman, the outer or physical person; antaratman, the inner person, excluding the physical form, who perceives, thinks and cognizes; and Paramatman, the transcendent Self God within.
See: Paramatman, kosha, soul.

Buddhism - The religion based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha (ca 624544 bce). He refuted the idea of man''s having an immortal soul and did not preach of any Supreme Deity. Instead he taught that man should seek to overcome greed, hatred and delusion and attain enlightenment through realizing the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path.

Prominent among its holy books is the Dhammapada. Buddhism arose out of Hinduism as an inspired reform movement which rejected the caste system and the sanctity of the Vedas. It is thus classed as nastika, "unbeliever," and is not part of Hinduism. Buddhism eventually migrated out of India, the country of its origin, and now enjoys a following of over 350 million, mostly in Asia.
See: Buddha.

Gay - Homosexual, especially a male homosexual, though may also refer to females.
See: Hinduism and Homosexuality, bisexual, homosexual, heterosexual, sexuality.

Grantha - (Sanskrit) Literally, "knot," a common name for book.

A term thought to refer to the knot on the cord that bound ancient palm-leaf or birch-bark manuscripts. Books are afforded deep respect in Hinduism, always carefully treated, never placed directly on the floor.

Special books are not uncommonly objects of worship. Grantha also names an ancient literary script developed in South India.
See: olai.

Hindu - (Sanskrit) A follower of, or relating to, Hinduism.

Generally, one is understood to be a Hindu by being born into a Hindu family and practicing the faith, or by declaring oneself a Hindu. Acceptance into the fold is recognized through the name-giving sacrament, a temple ceremony called namakarana samskara, given to born Hindus shortly after birth, and to self-declared Hindus who have proven their sincerity and been accepted by a Hindu community. Full conversion is completed through disavowal of previous religious affiliations and legal change of name.

While traditions vary greatly, all Hindus rely on the Vedas as scriptural authority and generally attest to the following nine principles:
There exists a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both creator and unmanifest Reality.
The universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution.
All souls are evolving toward God and will ultimately find moksha: spiritual knowledge and liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Not a single soul will be eternally deprived of this destiny.
Karma is the law of cause and effect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds.
The soul reincarnates, evolving through many births until all karmas have been resolved.
Divine beings exist in unseen worlds, and temple worship, rituals, sacraments, as well as personal devotionals, create a communion with these devas and Gods.
A spiritually awakened master or satguru is essential to know the transcendent Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, purification, self-inquiry and meditation.
All life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore one should practice ahimsa, nonviolence.
No particular religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others. Rather, all genuine religious paths are facets of God''s pure love and light, deserving tolerance and understanding.
See: Hinduism.

Liberal Hinduism - A synonym for Smartism and the closely related neo-Indian religion.
See: neo-Indian religion, Smartism, universalist.

Naraka - (Sanskrit) Abode of darkness. Literally, "pertaining to man."

The lower worlds. Equivalent to the Western term hell, a gross region of the Antarloka. Naraka is a congested, distressful area where demonic beings and young souls may sojourn until they resolve the darksome karmas they have created. Here beings suffer the consequences of their own misdeeds in previous lives. Naraka is understood as having seven regions, called tala, corresponding to the states of consciousness of the seven lower chakras as follows:
Put, "childless" - atala chakra, "wheel of the bottomless region." Fear and lust (located in the hips).
Avichi, "joyless" - vitala chakra: "wheel of negative region." Center of anger (thighs).
Samhata, "abandoned" - sutala chakra: "Great depth." Region of jealousy (knees).
Tamisra, "darkness" - talatala chakra: "wheel of the lower region." Realm of confused thinking (calves).
Rijisha, "expelled" - rasatala chakra: "wheel of subterranean region." Selfishness (ankles).
Kudmala, "leprous" - mahatala chakra: "wheel of the great lower region." Region of consciencelessness (feet). The intensity of "hell" begins at this deep level.
Kakola, "black poison" - patala chakra, "wheel of the fallen or sinful level." Region of malice (soles of the feet).

The seven-fold hellish region in its entirety is also called patala, "fallen region." Scriptures offer other lists of hells, numbering 7 or 21. They are described as places of torment, pain, darkness, confusion and disease, but none are places where souls reside forever. Hinduism has no eternal hell.
See: hell, loka, purgatory (also, individual tala entries).

Nataraja - (Sanskrit) "King of Dance," or "King of Dancers."

God as the Cosmic Dancer. Perhaps Hinduism''s richest and most eloquent symbol, Nataraja represents Siva, the Primal Soul, Parameshvara, as the power, energy and life of all that exists. This is Siva''s intricate state of Being in Manifestation. The dance of Siva as Natesha, Lord of Dancers, is the dance of the entire cosmos, the rhythmic movements in all. All that is, whether sentient or insentient, pulsates in His body.

Neo-indian Religion - Navabharata Dharma.

A modern form of liberal Hinduism that carries forward basic Hindu cultural values - such as dress, diet and the arts - while allowing religious values to subside. It emerged after the British Raj, when India declared itself an independent, secular state. It was cultivated by the Macaulay education system, implanted in India by the British, which aggressively undermined Hindu thought and belief. Neo- Indian religion encourages Hindus to follow any combination of theological, scriptural, sadhana and worship patterns, regardless of sectarian or religious origin. Extending out of and beyond the Smarta system of worshiping the Gods of each major sect, it incorporates holy icons from all religions, including Jesus, Mother Mary and Buddha. Many Navabharatis choose to not call themselves Hindus but to declare themselves members of all the world''s religions.
See: panchayatana puja, Smartism, Smarta Sampradaya, syncretism, universalist.

Nunk - A contemporary word coined by Catholic theologian Raimundo Panikkar to describe women contemplatives or female monks, in contrast to the word nun which commonly describes a religious teacher or service-oriented woman under vows. A nunk is a celibate woman following strict, perhaps austere and usually solitary, spiritual disciplines and lifestyle. By balancing the masculine and feminine energies within herself through sadhana and yoga, she is a complete being, detached from the thoughts and feelings of others, free to follow the contemplative and mystical life in pursuit of the Self within. To accomplish this, she works to permanently conquer her feminine instincts and the emotional tendencies of a woman''s body. She strives to transmute her sexuality into the Divine, giving up her womanliness so thoroughly that she is indistinguishable from a monk. In Hinduism, nunks may be sannyasinis, yoginis or sadhikas.
See: monastic, sannyasin, monk.

Om - (Sanskrit) "Yes, verily."

The most sacred mantra of Hinduism. An alternate transliteration of Aum (the sounds A and U blend to become O).
See: Aum.

Pati-pashu-pasha - (Sanskrit) Literally: "master, cow and tether."

These are the three primary elements (padartha, or tattvatrayi) of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy: God, soul and world - Divinity, man and cosmos - seen as a mystically and intricately interrelated unity. Pati is God, envisioned as a cowherd. Pashu is the soul, envisioned as a cow. Pasha is the all-important force or fetter by which God brings souls along the path to Truth. The various schools of Hinduism define the rapport among the three in varying ways. For pluralistic Saiva Siddhantins they are three beginningless verities, self-existent, eternal entities. For monistic Saiva Siddhantins, pashu and pasha are the emanational creation of Pati, Lord Siva, and He alone is eternal reality.
See: pasha, Saiva Siddhanta, soul.

Reincarnation - "Re-entering the flesh." Punarjanma; metempsychosis. The process wherein souls take on a physical body through the birth process.

Reincarnation is one of the fundamental principles of Hindu spiritual insight, shared by the mystical schools of nearly all religions, including Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism (and even by Christianity until it was cast out by the Nicene Council in 787). It is against the backdrop of this principle of the soul''s enjoying many lives that other aspects of Hinduism can be understood. It is a repetitive cycle, known as punarjanma, which originates in the subtle plane (Antarloka), the realm in which souls live between births and return to after death. Here they are assisted in readjusting to the "in-between" world and eventually prepared for yet another birth.

The quality and nature of the birth depends on the merit or demerit of their past actions (karma) and on the needs of their unique pattern of development and experience (dharma). The mother, the father and the soul together create a new body for the soul. At the moment of conception, the soul connects with and is irrevocably bound to the embryo. As soon as the egg is fertilized, the process of human life begins. It is during the mid-term of pregnancy that the full humanness of the fetus is achieved and the soul fully inhabits the new body, a stage which is acknowledged when the child begins to move and kick within the mother''s womb. (Tirumantiram, 460: "There in the pregnant womb, the soul lay in primordial quiescence [turiya] state. From that state, Maya [or Prakriti] and Her tribe aroused it and conferred consciousness and maya''s evolutes eight- desires and the rest. Thus say scriptures holy and true.")

Finally, at birth the soul emerges into earth consciousness, veiled of all memory of past lives and the inner worlds. The cycle of reincarnation ends when karma has been resolved and the Self God (Parasiva) has been realized. This condition of release is called moksha. Then the soul continues to evolve and mature, but without the need to return to physical existence. How many earthly births must one have to attain the unattainable? Many thousands to be sure, hastened by righteous living, tapas, austerities on all levels, penance and good deeds in abundance.
See: reincarnation, evolution of the soul, karma, moksha, nonhuman birth, samsara, soul.

Sacrifice - Yajna.

Making offerings to a Deity as an expression of homage and devotion.
Giving up something, often one''s own possession, advantage or preference, to serve a higher purpose.

The literal meaning of sacrifice is "to make sacred," implying an act of worship. It is the most common translation of the term yajna, from the verb yuj, "to worship." In Hinduism, all of life is a sacrifice - called jivayajna, a giving of oneself - through which comes true spiritual fulfillment. Tyaga, the power of detachment, is an essential quality of true sacrifice.
See: tyaga, yajna.

Samskaras Of Childhood - From naming to education.
namakarana: "Name-giving" and formal entry into one or another sect of Hinduism, performed 11 to 41 days after birth. The name is chosen according to astrology, preferably the name of a God or Goddess. At this time, guardian devas are assigned to see the child through life. One who converts to or adopts Hinduism later in life would receive this same sacrament.
annaprashana: (Sanskrit) "Feeding." The ceremony marking the first taking of solid food, held at about six months. (Breastfeeding generally continues).
karnavedha: "Earpiercing." The piercing of both ears, for boys and girls, and the inserting of gold earrings, held during the first, third or fifth year.
See: earrings.
chudakarana: (Sanskrit) "Head-shaving." The shaving of the head, for boys and girls, between the 31st day and the fourth year.
vidyarambha: (Sanskrit) Marks the beginning of formal education. The boy or girl ceremoniously writes his/her first letter of the alphabet in a tray of uncooked rice.
upanayana: Given to boys at about 12 years of age, marks the beginning of the period of brahmacharya and formal study of scripture and sacred lore, usually with an acharya or guru.
samavartana: Marks the end of formal religious study.
See: samskara, samskaras.

Sexuality - Hinduism has a healthy, unrepressed outlook on human sexuality, and sexual pleasure is part of kama, one of the four goals of life.

On matters such as birth control, sterilization, masturbation, homosexuality, bisexuality, petting and polygamy, Hindu scripture is tolerantly silent, neither calling them sins nor encouraging their practice, neither condemning nor condoning.

The two important exceptions to this understanding view of sexual experience are adultery and abortion, both of which are considered to carry heavy karmic implications for this and future births.
See: abortion, bisexuality, homosexuality.

Shad Darshana - (Sanskrit) "Six views or insights; six philosophies."

Among the hundreds of Hindu darshanas known through history are six classical philosophical systems: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

Each was tersely formulated in sutra form by its "founder," and elaborated in extensive commentaries by other writers. They are understood as varied attempts at describing Truth and the path to it. Elements of each form part of the Hindu fabric today.
Nyaya: "System, rule; logic." A system of logical realism, founded sometime around 300 bce by Gautama, known for its systems of logic and epistemology and concerned with the means of acquiring right knowledge. Its tools of enquiry and rules for argumentation were adopted by all schools of Hinduism.
Vaisheshika: "Distinctionism." From "vishesha," differences. Philosophy founded by Kanada (ca 300 bce) teaching that liberation is to be attained through understanding the nature of existence, which is classified in nine basic realities (dravyas): earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind. Nyaya and Vaisheshika are viewed as a complementary pair, with Nyaya emphasizing logic, and Vaisheshika analyzing the nature of the world.
Sankhya: "Enumeration, reckoning." A philosophy founded by the sage Kapila (ca 500 bce), author of the Sankhya Sutras. Sankhya is primarily concerned with "categories of existence," tattvas, which it understands as 25 in number. The first two are the unmanifest purusha and the manifest primal nature, prakriti - the male-female polarity, viewed as the foundation of all existence. Prakriti, out of which all things evolve, is the unity of the three gunas: sattva, rajas and tamas. Sankhya and Yoga are considered an inseparable pair whose principles permeate all of Hinduism.
See: prakriti, purusha.
Yoga: "Yoking; joining." Ancient tradition of philosophy and practice codified by Patanjali (ca 200 bce) in the Yoga Sutras. It is also known as raja yoga, "king of yogas," or ashtanga yoga, "eight-limbed yoga." Its object is to achieve, at will, the cessation of all fluctuations of consciousness, and the attainment of Self Realization. Yoga is wholly dedicated to putting the high philosophy of Hinduism into practice, to achieve personal transformation through transcendental experience, samadhi.
See: yoga.
Mimamsa: "Inquiry" (or Purva, "early," Mimamsa). Founded by Jaimini (ca 200 bce), author of the Mimamsa Sutras, who taught the correct performance of Vedic rites as the means to salvation.
Vedanta (or Uttara "later" Mimamsa): "End (or culmination) of the Vedas." For Vedanta, the main basis is the Upanishads and Aranyakas (the "end," anta, of the Vedas), rather than the hymns and ritual portions of the Vedas. The teaching of Vedanta is that there is one Absolute Reality, Brahman. Man is one with Brahman, and the object of life is to realize that truth through right knowledge, intuition and personal experience. The Vedanta Sutras (or Brahma Sutras) were composed by Rishi Badarayana (ca 400 bce).
See

Shakti - (Sanskrit) "Power, energy," from the root shak, "to be able."

The active power or manifest energy of Siva that pervades all of existence. Its most refined aspect is Parashakti, or Satchidananda, the pure consciousness and primal substratum of all form.

This pristine, divine energy unfolds as icçha shakti (the power of desire, will, love), kriya shakti (the power of action) and jnana shakti (the power of wisdom, knowing), represented as the three prongs of Siva''s trishula, or trident. From these arise the five powers of revealment, concealment, dissolution, preservation and creation.

In Saiva Siddhanta, Siva is All, and His divine energy, Shakti, is inseparable from Him. This unity is symbolized in the image of Ardhanarishvara, "half-female God." In popular, village Hinduism, the unity of Siva and Shakti is replaced with the concept of Siva and Shakti as separate entities. Shakti is represented as female, and Siva as male. In Hindu temples, art and mythology, they are everywhere seen as the divine couple. This depiction has its source in the folk-narrative sections of the Puranas, where it is given elaborate expression. Shakti is personified in many forms as the consorts of the Gods. For example, the Goddesses Parvati, Lakshmi and Sarasvati are the respective mythological consorts of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma. Philosophically, however, the caution is always made that God and God''s energy are One, and the metaphor of the inseparable divine couple serves only to illustrate this Oneness.

Within the Shakta religion, the worship of the Goddess is paramount, in Her many fierce and benign forms. Shakti is the Divine Mother of manifest creation, visualized as a female form, and Siva is specifically the Unmanifest Absolute. The fierce or black (asita) forms of the Goddess include Kali, Durga, Chandi, Chamundi, Bhadrakali and Bhairavi. The benign or white (sita) forms include Uma, Gauri, Ambika, Parvati, Maheshvari, Lalita and Annapurna. As Rajarajeshvari ("divine queen of kings"). She is the presiding Deity of the Sri Chakra yantra. She is also worshiped as the ten Mahavidyas, manifestations of the highest knowledge - Kali, Tara, Shodashi, Bhuvaneshvari, Chinnamasta, Bhairavi, Dhumavati, Bagata, Matangi and Kamala. While some Shaktas view these as individual beings, most revere them as manifestations of the singular Devi. There are also numerous minor Goddess forms, in the category of gramadevata ("village Deity"). These include Pitari, "snake-catcher" (usually represented by a simple stone), and Mariyamman, "smallpox Goddess."

In the yoga mysticism of all traditions, divine energy, shakti, is experienced within the human body in three aspects:
the feminine force, ida shakti,
the masculine force, pingala shakti, and
the pure androgynous force, kundalini shakti, that flows through the sushumna nadi.
Shakti is most easily experienced by devotees as the sublime, bliss-inspiring energy that emanates from a holy person or sanctified Hindu temple.
See: Amman, Ardhanarishvara, Goddess, Parashakti, Shaktism.

Sin - Intentional transgression of divine law. Akin to the Latin sons, "guilty."

Hinduism does not view sin as a crime against God, but as an act against dharma - moral order - and one''s own self. It is thought natural, if unfortunate, that young souls act wrongly, for they are living in nescience, avidya, the darkness of ignorance.

Sin is an adharmic course of action which automatically brings negative consequences. The term sin carries a double meaning, as do its Sanskrit equivalents:
a wrongful act,
the negative consequences resulting from a wrongful act.

In Sanskrit the wrongful act is known by several terms, including pataka (from pat, "to fall") papa, enas, kilbisha, adharma, anrita and rina (transgress, in the sense of omission).

The residue of sin is called papa, sometimes conceived of as a sticky, astral substance which can be dissolved through penance (prayashchitta), austerity (tapas) and good deeds (sukritya). This astral substance can be psychically seen within the inner, subconscious aura of the individual. Note that papa is also accrued through unknowing or unintentional transgressions of dharma, as in the term aparadha (offense, fault, mistake).

inherent sin or original sin: A doctrine of Semitic faiths whereby each soul is born in sin as a result of Adam''s disobedience in the Garden of Eden. Sometimes mistakenly compared to the Saiva Siddhanta concept of the three malas, especially anava.
See: pasha.

mortal sin: According to some theologies, sins so grave that they can never be expiated and which cause the soul to be condemned to suffer eternally in hell. In Hinduism, there are no such concepts as inherent sin or mortal sin.
See: aura, evil, karma, papa.

Smarta Sampradaya - (Sanskrit) The teaching tradition of Hinduism''s Smarta sect, formalized by Adi Shankara in the 9th century.
See: Smartism.

Swami Vivekananda - (Sanskrit) "Of blissful
discrimination." Disciple of Sri Ramakrishna who was
overtaken by an ardent love of Hinduism and a missionary
zeal that drove him onward. He attained mahasamadhi at
age 39 (18631902).
Most notable among his
achievements was a trip around the world on which he
gave brilliant lectures, especially in Europe and America,
that created much respect for Hinduism. In India he
founded the Ramakrishna Mission which thrives today
internationally with over 100 centers and nearly 1,000
sannyasins. He is credited, along with Tagore, Aurobindo,
Radhakrishnan and others, with sparking the modern
Hindu revival.
See: jnana yoga, Ramakrishna.

Temple - An edice in a consecrated place dedicated to the worship of God or the Gods. From the Latin templum, "temple, sanctuary; marked space."

Hindu temples, over one million worldwide, are revered as sacred, magical places in which the three worlds most consciously commune - structures especially built and consecrated to channel the subtle spiritual energies of inner-world beings.

The temple''s psychic atmosphere is maintained through regular worship ceremonies (puja) invoking the Deity, who uses His installed image (murti) as a temporary body to bless those living on the earth plane. In Hinduism, the temple is the hub of virtually all aspects of social and religious life. It may be referred to by the Sanskrit terms mandira, devalaya (or Sivalaya, a Siva temple), as well as by vernacular terms such as koyil (Tamil).
See: garbhagriha, darshana, mandapa, pradakshina, sound, teradi, tirthayatra.

Vaishnavism - (Sanskrit) "Way of Vishnu." One of the four major religions, or denominations of Hinduism, representing roughly half of the world''s one billion Hindus. It gravitates around the worship of Lord Vishnu as Personal God, His incarnations and their consorts.

The doctrine of avatara (He who descends), especially important to Vaishnavism, teaches that whenever adharma gains ascendency in the world, God takes a human birth to reestablish "the way." There are either 10, 22 or 34 avataras of Vishnu, according to various scriptures. The most renowned avataras were Rama and Krishna. The last to come will be Kalki, the harbinger of a golden age on Earth.

Vaishnavism stresses the personal aspect of God over the impersonal, and bhakti (devotion) as the true path to salvation. The goal of Vaishnavism is the attainment of mukti, defined as blissful union with God''s body, the loving recognition that the soul is a part of Him, and eternal nearness to Him in Vaikuntha, heaven.

Foremost among Vaishnava scriptures are the Vaishnava Agamas, Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana. Among the earliest schools were the Pancharatras and the Bhagavatas.

The five major contemporary schools (founded between 1000 and 1500) are those of Ramanuja (Sri Vaishnavism), Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Chaitanya. Philosophically they range from Madhva''s pure dualism to Vallabha''s lofty monistic vision.

Varna - The four varnas are as follows. - brahmin
(brahmana): "Mature, evolved soul." Scholarly,
pious souls of exceptional learning. Hindu scriptures
traditionally invest the brahmin class with the
responsibility of religious leadership, including
teaching and priestly duties. - kshatriya:
"Governing; endowed with sovereignty." Lawmakers
and law enforcers and military, also known as
rajanya. - vaishya: "Landowner, merchant."
Businessmen, financiers, industrialists; employers.
Those engaged in business, commerce and
agriculture. - shudra: (Sanskrit) "Worker, servant."
Skilled artisans and laborers. It is in keeping with
varna dharma that sons are expected to follow the
occupation of their father, as that is the occupation
that was chosen prior to birth.
- jati: "Birth; position assigned by birth; rank, caste,
family, race, lineage." Jati, more than varna, is the
specific determinant of one''s social community.
Traditionally, because of rules of purity each jati is
excluded from social interaction with the others,
especially from interdining and intermarriage. In
modern times there is also a large group (oneseventh
of India''s population in 1981) outside the
four varnas. These are called scheduled classes,
untouchables, jatihita ("outcaste"), chandalas (specifically those who handle corpses) and harijan, a
name given by Mahatma Gandhi, meaning "children
of God." "Untouchable" jatis included the nishada
(hunter), kaivarta (fisherman) and karavara (leather
worker).
The varna dharma system - despite its widespread
discrimination against harijans, and the abuse of
social status by higher castes - ensures a high
standard of craftsmanship, a sense of community
belonging, family integrity and religio-cultural
continuity. Caste is not unique to Hinduism and
India. By other names it is found in every society.
The four varnas, or classes, and myriad jatis,
occupational castes, or guilds, form the basic
elements of human interaction.
See: dharma, Dharma
Shastras, jati.

Varna - The four varnas are as follows.
brahmin (brahmana): "Mature, evolved soul." Scholarly, pious souls of exceptional learning. Hindu scriptures traditionally invest the brahmin class with the responsibility of religious leadership, including teaching and priestly duties.
kshatriya: "Governing; endowed with sovereignty." Lawmakers and law enforcers and military, also known as rajanya.
vaishya: "Landowner, merchant." Businessmen, financiers, industrialists; employers. Those engaged in business, commerce and agriculture.
shudra: (Sanskrit) "Worker, servant." Skilled artisans and laborers. It is in keeping with varna dharma that sons are expected to follow the occupation of their father, as that is the occupation that was chosen prior to birth.
jati: "Birth; position assigned by birth; rank, caste, family, race, lineage." Jati, more than varna, is the specific determinant of one''s social community. Traditionally, because of rules of purity each jati is excluded from social interaction with the others, especially from interdining and intermarriage.

In modern times there is also a large group (oneseventh of India''s population in 1981) outside the four varnas. These are called scheduled classes, untouchables, jatihita ("outcaste"), chandalas (specifically those who handle corpses) and harijan, a name given by Mahatma Gandhi, meaning "children of God." "Untouchable" jatis included the nishada (hunter), kaivarta (fisherman) and karavara (leather worker).

The varna dharma system - despite its widespread discrimination against harijans, and the abuse of social status by higher castes - ensures a high standard of craftsmanship, a sense of community belonging, family integrity and religio-cultural continuity. Caste is not unique to Hinduism and India. By other names it is found in every society. The four varnas, or classes, and myriad jatis, occupational castes, or guilds, form the basic elements of human interaction.
See: caste system, varna dharma, varna, dharma, Dharma Shastras, jati, Brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, shudra, jati

Veda - (Sanskrit) "Wisdom." Sagely revelations which comprise Hinduism''s most authoritative scripture. They, along with the Agamas, are shruti, "that which is heard." The Vedas are a body of dozens of holy texts known collectively as the Veda, or as the four Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. In all they include over 100,000 verses, as well as additional prose.

The knowledge imparted by the Vedas is highly mystical or superconscious rather than intellectual. Each Veda has four sections:
Samhitas (hymn collections),
Brahmanas (priestly manuals),
Aranyakas (forest treatises) and
Upanishads (enlightened discourses).

The Samhitas and Brahmanas (together known as the karmakanda, "ritual section") detail a transcendent-immanent Supreme-Being cosmology and a system of worship through fire ceremony and chanting to establish communication with the Gods.

The Aranyakas and Upanishads (the jnanakanda, "knowledge section") outline the soul''s evolutionary journey, providing yogic-philosophic training and propounding a lofty, nondual realization as the destiny of all souls.

The oldest portions of the Vedas are thought to date back as far as 6,000 bce, written down in Sanskrit in the last few millennia, making them the world''s most ancient scriptures.
See: Aranyaka, Brahmana, shruti, Upanishad, Vedanga.

Vedic-agamic - Simultaneously drawing from and
complying with both of Hinduism''s revealed scriptures
(shruti), Vedas and Agamas, which represent two
complimentary, intertwining streams of history and
tradition. The difference between Siddhanta and Vedanta
is traditionally described in the following way. While the
Vedas depict man looking for God, the Agamas hold the
perspective of God looking to help man. This is reflected
in the fact that while the Vedas are voiced by rishis, God
or the Goddess is the giver of truth in the Agama texts.
See: grace, shruti.

Vira Saivism - (Sanskrit) "Heroic Saivism." Made
prominent by Basavanna in the 12th century. Also called
Lingayat Saivism. Followers, called Lingayats,
Lingavantas or Sivasharanas, always wear a Sivalinga on
their person. Vira Saivites are proudly egalitarian and
emphasize the personal relationship with Siva, rather than
temple worship. Vira Saiva priests, jangamas, conduct
marriages and other domestic rites and also act as gurus or
teachers. Among the most central texts are Basavanna''s
Vachanas, Allama Prabhu''s Mantragopya,
Chennabasavanna''s Karana Hasuge, and the collected
work called Shunya Sampadane. The monistic-theistic
doctrine of Vira Saivism is called Shakti Vishishtadvaita -
a version of qualified nondualism which accepts both difference and nondifference between soul and God, like
rays are to the sun. In brief, Siva and the cosmic force or
existence are one ("Siva are you; you shall return to
Siva."). Yet, Siva is beyond His creation, which is real,
not illusory. God is both efficient and material cause. In
Vira Saivism, Siva divides from His Absolute state into
Linga (Supreme Lord) and anga, individual soul, the two
eventually reuniting in undifferentiated oneness. There are
three aspects of Sivalinga. 1) Ishtalinga, personal form of
Siva, in which He fulfills desires and removes afflictions -
God as bliss or joy; 2) Bhavalinga, Siva beyond space and
time, the highest divine principle, knowable through
intuition; 3) Pranalinga, the reality of God which can be
apprehended by the mind. The soul merges with Siva by a
progressive, six-stage path called shatsthala, consisting of
bhakti (devotion), mahesha (charity and selfless service),
prasada (seeking Siva''s grace), Pranalinga (experience of
all as Siva), sharana (egoless refuge in Siva) and aikya
(oneness with Siva). Today Vira Saivism is a vibrant faith,
particularly strong in its religious homeland of Karnataka,
South Central India. Roughly 40 million people live here,
of which perhaps 25% are members of the Vira Saiva
religion. Early on, they rejected brahminical authority, and
along with it the entire caste system and the Vedas. By
rejecting the Vedas, they continue to stand outside
mainstream Hinduism, but in their profound love of Siva
and acceptance of certain Saiva Agamas, as well as the
main truths of the Vedic wisdom, they have identified
themselves as a unique Saiva sect. Though they have
established their faith as a distinct and independent
religion in Indian courts of law, they are still widely
embraced as devout brothers and sisters of the Hindu
dharma.
See: Lingavanta, Saivism.