Helmholtz

Seurat and his fellow Neoimpressionists rejected contemporary Impressionism, with its emphasis on intuition and spontaneity, for a new "scientific" Impressionism that embraced the optical and psycho-biological theories that they learned from the works of Chevreul, Blanc, Sutter and Henry. The Neoimpressionists sought to create art based on reflection, order and intelligent scientific design. Using contemporary research on color and perception, they developed a style that uses small dots of pure color juxtaposed together to maximize lu ...

See also:

Georges-Pierre Seurat, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Life, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Challenging the Impressionists, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Scientific background and influences, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's melding of science and emotion, Georges-Pierre Seurat - The crowning achievement, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Read more here: » Georges-Pierre Seurat: Encyclopedia II - Georges-Pierre Seurat - Challenging the Impressionists

Seurat took to heart the color theorists' notion of a scientific approach to painting. Sutter predicted that someone could learn the laws of harmony and emotion in art through color just like someone learns any other natural laws, or how to create harmony in music. Seurat was driven to prove this conjecture. He thought that the knowledge of perception and optical laws could be used to create a new language of art based on its own set of heuristics and he set out to show this language using lines, color intensity and color sch ...

See also:

Georges-Pierre Seurat, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Life, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Challenging the Impressionists, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Scientific background and influences, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's melding of science and emotion, Georges-Pierre Seurat - The crowning achievement, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Read more here: » Georges-Pierre Seurat: Encyclopedia II - Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's melding of science and emotion

Recognition was slow in coming, in good part because Gibbs published mainly in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences, a journal, edited by his librarian brother-in-law, little read in the USA and less so in Europe. At first, only a few European theoretical physicists and chemists, such as the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, paid any attention to his work. Only when Gibbs's papers were translated into German (then the leading language for chemistry) by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1892, and into French by Henri Louis le Cha ...

See also:

Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Quotations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Cited material, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

Read more here: » Josiah Willard Gibbs: Encyclopedia II - Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition

Due to its central situation in Europe a very high traffic volume exists in Germany. In particular for the goods traffic it represents an important transit country. This constantly shifted in the past decades from the rail on the road, so that the Federal Government introduced 2005 a freeway toll for trucks. In addition, the individual traffic increased in an extent that on German roads a traffic volume very high in the international comparison prevails. This development went in particular debited to the rail traffic: Due to profitability la ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - Federal States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Transportation, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Transportation

Germany - Demographics. Main article: Demographics of Germany Due to the country's federal and decentralized structure Germany has a number of larger cities. The most populous cities of Germany are Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt and Dortmund. By far the largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region, including the Düsseldorf-Cologne district and the cities of Dortmund, Duisburg and Bochum. The federal structure has kept the population oriented towards a number of large cities, and has precluded the growth of any single city that would rival such European capitals a ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - Federal States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Transportation, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Society

Germany - Demographics. Main articles: Demographics of Germany, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - Federal States Bundesländer, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Society

[1] Seurat, Georges. Letter to Maurice Beaubourg (1890), in Impressionism and Post-Impressionism: Sources and Documents. L. Nochlin (ed.) Englewood Cliffs (NJ), 1966, p. 113 [2] Hunter, Sam. Georges Seurat, in S. Hunter and J. Jacobus, Modern Art (3rd ed.). New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1992, p. 26 ...

See also:

Georges-Pierre Seurat, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Life, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Challenging the Impressionists, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Scientific background and influences, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's melding of science and emotion, Georges-Pierre Seurat - The crowning achievement, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Read more here: » Georges-Pierre Seurat: Encyclopedia II - Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Variations in air pressure against the ear drum, and the subsequent physical and neurological processing and interpretation, give rise to the experience called "sound". Most sound that people recognize as "musical" is dominated by periodic or regular vibrations rather than non-periodic ones (called a definite pitch), and we refer to the transmission mechanism as a "sound wave". In a very simple case, the sound of a sine wave, which is considered to be the most basic model of a sound waveform, causes the air pressure to increase and decrease ...

See also:

Musical acoustics, Musical acoustics - Methods and fields of study, Musical acoustics - Sound waves, Musical acoustics - Harmonics partials and overtones, Musical acoustics - Harmonics and non-linearities, Musical acoustics - Harmony, Musical acoustics - The natural scale, Musical acoustics - Evolution of the natural scale, Musical acoustics - The equal tempered scale, Musical acoustics - Cent values of equal temperament

Read more here: » Musical acoustics: Encyclopedia II - Musical acoustics - Sound waves

For a strictly convex function the Legendre-transformation can be interpreted as a mapping between the graph of the function and the family of tangents of the graph. (The tangents are well-defined at all but at most countably many points since a convex function is differentiable at all but at most countably many points.) The equation of a line with slope m and y-intercept b is given by For this line to be tangent to the graph of a function f at the point (x0, f(x0See also:

Legendre transformation, Legendre transformation - Applications, Legendre transformation - Examples, Legendre transformation - Legendre transformation in one dimension, Legendre transformation - Geometric interpretation, Legendre transformation - Legendre transformation in more than one dimension, Legendre transformation - Further properties, Legendre transformation - Scaling properties, Legendre transformation - Behavior under translation, Legendre transformation - Behavior under inversion, Legendre transformation - Behavior under linear transformations, Legendre transformation - Infimal convolution

Read more here: » Legendre transformation: Encyclopedia II - Legendre transformation - Geometric interpretation

Germany - Legal system. Main article: Judiciary of Germany Germany has a civil or statute law system based ultimately on Roman law. Legislative power is divided between the Federation and the individual federated states. While criminal law and private law have seen codifications on the national level (in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively), no such unifying codification exists in administrative law where a lot of the fundamental matters remai ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - Federal States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Transportation, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Politics

Germany is the largest European economy and the fifth largest economy in the world measured by gross domestic product purchasing power parity, placed behind the United States, China, Japan and India. According to the World Trade Organization, Germany is also the world's top exporter, ahead of the United States and China. Its major trading partners include France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Italy and the Netherlands. Germany is the largest trading partner of most European countries. A major issue of concern remains the persistentl ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - Federal States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Transportation, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Economy

Germany - Federal States Länder. Main article: States of Germany Germany is divided into sixteen federal states (in German called Länder, singular Land; commonly Bundesländer, singular Bundesland). It is further subdivided into 439 districts (Kreise) and cities (kreisfreie Städte) (2004). Germany - Territory. Since reunification Germany has resumed its role as a major centre between Scandinav ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - Federal States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Transportation, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Geography

Germany - Federal States Bundesländer. Main articles: States of Germany, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [ ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - Federal States Bundesländer, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Geography

Philipp Lenard was born in Bratislava (then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire) on July 7, 1862. He studied under the illustrious Bunsen and Helmholtz, and obtained his doctoral degree in 1886 at the University of Heidelberg. After posts at Aachen, Bonn, Breslau, Heidelberg (1896-1898), and Kiel (1898-1907), he returned finally to the University of Heidelberg in 1907 as the head of the Philipp Lenard Institute. As a physicist, Lenard's major contributions were in the study of cathode rays. Prior to his work, cathode rays were produce ...

See also:

Philipp Lenard, Philipp Lenard - Biography, Philipp Lenard - Photoelectric investigation, Philipp Lenard - Books by Philipp Lenard

Read more here: » Philipp Lenard: Encyclopedia II - Philipp Lenard - Biography

Seurat attended the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1878 and 1879. After a year of military service at Brest military academy, he returned to Paris in 1880. He started off sharing a small studio on the Left Bank with two student friends before moving to a studio of his own. For the next two years, he devoted himself to mastering the art of black and white drawing. He spent 1883 on a huge canvas, Bath ...

See also:

Georges-Pierre Seurat, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Life, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's Scientific Background and Influences, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat Challenging of the Impressionists, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's Melding of Science and Emotion, Georges-Pierre Seurat - The Crowning Achievement, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Read more here: » Georges-Pierre Seurat: Encyclopedia II - Georges-Pierre Seurat - Life

Germany - Demographics. Due to the country's federal and decentralized structure Germany has a number of larger cities. The most populous cities of Germany are Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt and Dortmund. By far the largest urban conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region, including the Düsseldorf-Cologne district and the cities of Dortmund, Duisburg and Bochum. The federal structure keeps the population oriented towards a number of large cities and with this also characterizes a demographic structure unlike most other European countries. On ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Society

Germany is the largest European economy and the fifth largest economy in the world measured by gross domestic product purchasing power parity, placed behind the United States, China, Japan and India. According to the World Trade Organization, Germany is also the world's top exporter, ahead of the United States and China. Its major trading partners include France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Italy and the Netherlands. Germany is the largest trading partner of most European countries. A major issue of concern remains the persistentl ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Economy

Germany - States Länder. Germany is divided into sixteen federal states (in German called Länder, singular Land; though more commonly Bundesländer, singular Bundesland). It is further subdivided into 439 districts (Kreise) and cities (kreisfreie Städte) (2004). Germany - Territory. Since reunification Germany has resumed its role as a major centre between Scandinavia in the north and the Mediterranean region in the south, as well as between the Atlantic west and the cou ...

See also:

Germany, Germany - History, Germany - Early history of the Germanic tribes 100 BC-300 AD, Germany - Migration Period and Franks 300-843, Germany - The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation 843–1806, Germany - Restoration and revolution 1814–1871, Germany - German Empire 1871–1918, Germany - Weimar Republic 1919–1933, Germany - Third Reich 1933–1945, Germany - Division and reunification 1945–1990, Germany - Politics, Germany - Legal system, Germany - Foreign Relations, Germany - Armed Forces, Germany - Energy policy, Germany - Geography, Germany - States Länder, Germany - Territory, Germany - Climate, Germany - Economy, Germany - Exports, Germany - Imports, Germany - Agriculture, Germany - Industrial sector, Germany - Service sector, Germany - Natural resources, Germany - Society, Germany - Demographics, Germany - Religion, Germany - Education, Germany - Social issues, Germany - Culture, Germany - Miscellaneous topics

Read more here: » Germany: Encyclopedia II - Germany - Geography

Seurat took to heart the color theorists' notion of a scientific approach to painting. Sutter had predicted that someone could learn the laws of harmony and emotion in art through color just like someone learns any other natural laws, or how to create harmony in music and Seurat had driven to prove this conjecture. Seurat thought that the knowledge of perception and optical laws could be used to create a new language of art based on its own set of heuristics and he set out to show this language using lines, color intensity and color sche ...

See also:

Georges-Pierre Seurat, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Life, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's Scientific Background and Influences, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat Challenging of the Impressionists, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's Melding of Science and Emotion, Georges-Pierre Seurat - The Crowning Achievement, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Read more here: » Georges-Pierre Seurat: Encyclopedia II - Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's Melding of Science and Emotion

[1] Hunter, Sam. Georges Seurat, in S. Hunter and J. Jacobus, Modern Art (3rd ed.). New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1992, p. 26 [2] Seurat, Georges. Letter to Maurice Beaubourg (1890), in Impressionism and Post-Impressionism: Sources and Documents. L. Nochlin (ed.) Englewood Cliffs (NJ), 1966, p. 113 ...

See also:

Georges-Pierre Seurat, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Life, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's Scientific Background and Influences, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat Challenging of the Impressionists, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Seurat's Melding of Science and Emotion, Georges-Pierre Seurat - The Crowning Achievement, Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Read more here: » Georges-Pierre Seurat: Encyclopedia II - Georges-Pierre Seurat - Endnotes

Among the honors given to Gibbs' memory after his death, Yale University created the "J. Willard Gibbs Professorship in Theoretical Chemistry". Held during most of his career at Yale by eventual Nobel Prize laureate Lars Onsager, it was an extremely appropriate title for Onsager, who was primarily involved, like Gibbs, in the application of new mathematical ideas to problems in physical chemistry, especially statistical mechanics. Since, in the mid-1800s, American colleges had little interest in the sciences and emphasized clas ...

See also:

Josiah Willard Gibbs, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Early years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Middle years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Later years, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Death and afterwards, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition, Josiah Willard Gibbs - External articles and references, Josiah Willard Gibbs - Citations, Josiah Willard Gibbs - General

Read more here: » Josiah Willard Gibbs: Encyclopedia II - Josiah Willard Gibbs - Scientific recognition

Niels Henrik Abel seems to have been the first to consider in a general way the question as to what differential expressions can be integrated in a finite form by the aid of ordinary functions, an investigation extended by Liouville. Cauchy early undertook the general theory of determining definite integrals, and the subject has been prominent during the 19th century. Frullani's theorem (1821), Bierens de Haan's work on the theory (1862) and his elaborate tables (1867), Dirichlet's lectures (1858) embodied in Meyer's treatise (1871), and num ...

See also:

History of calculus, History of calculus - Invention of Calculus, History of calculus - Controversy Newton Leibnitz... or Madhava?, History of calculus - Rigorous foundations, History of calculus - Integrals, History of calculus - Symbolic methods, History of calculus - Calculus of variations, History of calculus - Applications

Read more here: » History of calculus: Encyclopedia II - History of calculus - Integrals