Khazars - Khazar Kingship. Main Articles: Khagan; Khagan Bek; for names of Khazar rulers see List of Khazar rulers. Khazar kingship was divided between the khagan and the Bek or Khagan Bek. Contemporary Arab historians related that the Khagan was purely a spiritual ruler or figurehead with limited powers, while the Bek was responsible for administration and military affairs. Both the Khagan and the Khagan Bek lived in Itil. The Khagan's palace, according to Arab sources, was on an island in the Volga River. He was reported to have 25 wives, each the daughter of a client ruler; this ma ...

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Khazars, Khazars - Origins and prehistory, Khazars - Tribes, Khazars - Rise, Khazars - Formation of the Khazar state, Khazars - Khazars and Byzantium, Khazars - Second Khazar-Arab war, Khazars - Khazar religion, Khazars - Turkic shamanism, Khazars - Conversion to Judaism and relations with world Jewry, Khazars - Other religions, Khazars - Government, Khazars - Khazar Kingship, Khazars - Army, Khazars - Other officials, Khazars - Judiciary, Khazars - Economic position, Khazars - Trade, Khazars - Khazar coinage, Khazars - Extent of influence, Khazars - Khazar towns, Khazars - Tributary and subject nations, Khazars - Decline and fall, Khazars - Rise of Rus, Khazars - Kabar rebellion and the departure of the Magyars, Khazars - Rus and Byzantine hostility, Khazars - Khazars outside of Khazaria, Khazars - Late references to the Khazars, Khazars - Jewish sources, Khazars - Muslim sources, Khazars - Kievan Rus sources, Khazars - Byzantine Georgian and Armenian sources, Khazars - Western sources, Khazars - Debate, Khazars - Date and extent of the conversion, Khazars - Khazar ancestry of Ashkenazim, Khazars - In Fiction, Khazars - Resources, Khazars - Books written before 1915

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Khazars - Trade. The Khazars occupied a prime trade nexus. Goods from western Europe travelled east to Central Asia and China and vice versa, and the Muslim world could only interact with northern Europe via Khazar intermediaries. The Radanites, a guild of medieval Jewish merchants, had a trade route that ran through Khazaria, and may have been instrumental in the Khazars' conversion to Judaism. No Khazar paid taxes to the central government. Revenue came from a 10% levy on goods transiting through the reg ...

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Khazars, Khazars - Origins and prehistory, Khazars - Tribes, Khazars - Rise, Khazars - Formation of the Khazar state, Khazars - Khazars and Byzantium, Khazars - Second Khazar-Arab war, Khazars - Khazar religion, Khazars - Turkic shamanism, Khazars - Conversion to Judaism and relations with world Jewry, Khazars - Other religions, Khazars - Government, Khazars - Khazar Kingship, Khazars - Army, Khazars - Other officials, Khazars - Judiciary, Khazars - Economic position, Khazars - Trade, Khazars - Khazar coinage, Khazars - Extent of influence, Khazars - Khazar towns, Khazars - Tributary and subject nations, Khazars - Decline and fall, Khazars - Rise of Rus, Khazars - Kabar rebellion and the departure of the Magyars, Khazars - Rus and Byzantine hostility, Khazars - Khazars outside of Khazaria, Khazars - Late references to the Khazars, Khazars - Jewish sources, Khazars - Muslim sources, Khazars - Kievan Rus sources, Khazars - Byzantine Georgian and Armenian sources, Khazars - Western sources, Khazars - Debate, Khazars - Date and extent of the conversion, Khazars - Khazar ancestry of Ashkenazim, Khazars - In Fiction, Khazars - Resources, Khazars - Books written before 1915

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The Khazars' tribal structure is not well understood. They appear, like many Turkic nations, to have been divided between Ak-Khazars ("White Khazars") and Kara-Khazars ("Black Khazars"). Writers such as Graetz mistakenly believed that these were racial designations; in fact, such distinctions have nothing to do with physical appearance or racial identification. The White-Black distinction is a common social division in Eurasian nomadic tribes, with the "White" group representing the nobility, warrior elite and ruling classes, and the "Black" group making ...

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Khazars, Khazars - Origins and prehistory, Khazars - Tribes, Khazars - Rise, Khazars - Formation of the Khazar state, Khazars - Khazars and Byzantium, Khazars - Second Khazar-Arab war, Khazars - Khazar religion, Khazars - Turkic shamanism, Khazars - Conversion to Judaism and relations with world Jewry, Khazars - Other religions, Khazars - Government, Khazars - Khazar Kingship, Khazars - Army, Khazars - Other officials, Khazars - Judiciary, Khazars - Economic position, Khazars - Trade, Khazars - Khazar coinage, Khazars - Extent of influence, Khazars - Khazar towns, Khazars - Tributary and subject nations, Khazars - Decline and fall, Khazars - Rise of Rus, Khazars - Kabar rebellion and the departure of the Magyars, Khazars - Rus and Byzantine hostility, Khazars - Khazars outside of Khazaria, Khazars - Late references to the Khazars, Khazars - Jewish sources, Khazars - Muslim sources, Khazars - Kievan Rus sources, Khazars - Byzantine Georgian and Armenian sources, Khazars - Western sources, Khazars - Debate, Khazars - Date and extent of the conversion, Khazars - Khazar ancestry of Ashkenazim, Khazars - In Fiction, Khazars - Resources, Khazars - Books written before 1915

Read more here: » Khazars: Encyclopedia II - Khazars - Tribes

The origins of the Khazars are unclear. Following their conversion to Judaism, the Khazars themselves traced their origins to Kozar, a son of Togarmeh. Togarmeh is mentioned in the Hebrew scriptures as a grandson of Japheth. It is unlikely, however, that he was regarded as an ancestor before the introduction of Biblical traditions to Khazaria. Some historians have looked for possible connections between the Khazars and the lost tribes of Israel, but modern scholars generally consider them to be Turks who migrated from the East. Schola ...

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Khazars, Khazars - Origins and prehistory, Khazars - Tribes, Khazars - Rise, Khazars - Formation of the Khazar state, Khazars - Khazars and Byzantium, Khazars - Second Khazar-Arab war, Khazars - Khazar religion, Khazars - Turkic shamanism, Khazars - Conversion to Judaism and relations with world Jewry, Khazars - Other religions, Khazars - Government, Khazars - Khazar Kingship, Khazars - Army, Khazars - Other officials, Khazars - Judiciary, Khazars - Economic position, Khazars - Trade, Khazars - Khazar coinage, Khazars - Extent of influence, Khazars - Khazar towns, Khazars - Tributary and subject nations, Khazars - Decline and fall, Khazars - Rise of Rus, Khazars - Kabar rebellion and the departure of the Magyars, Khazars - Rus and Byzantine hostility, Khazars - Khazars outside of Khazaria, Khazars - Late references to the Khazars, Khazars - Jewish sources, Khazars - Muslim sources, Khazars - Kievan Rus sources, Khazars - Byzantine Georgian and Armenian sources, Khazars - Western sources, Khazars - Debate, Khazars - Date and extent of the conversion, Khazars - Khazar ancestry of Ashkenazim, Khazars - In Fiction, Khazars - Resources, Khazars - Books written before 1915

Read more here: » Khazars: Encyclopedia II - Khazars - Origins and prehistory

In Medieval and Modern Spain, the Visigoths were thought to be the origin of the Spanish nobility (compare Gobineau for a similar French idea). Somebody acting with arrogance would be said to be "haciéndose de los godos" ("making himself to come from the Goths"). Because of this, in Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands, godo is an ethnic slur used against European Spaniards, who in the early colony ...

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Goths, Goths - History, Goths - Origins, Goths - Archaeology, Goths - Linguistics, Goths - Symbolic meaning, Goths - Notes

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In the list that follows, the role of these foreign merchant companies in the functioning of the city that was their host, in more than one sense is, as Fernand Braudel pointed out in The Perspective of the World, a telling criterion of the status of that city: "If he rules the roost in a given city or region, the foreign merchant is a sign of the [economic] inferiority of that city or region, compared with the economy of which he is the emissary or representative." It is worthy of note that several women were Deputy Aldermen of the H ...

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Hanseatic League, Hanseatic League - History, Hanseatic League - Foundation, Hanseatic League - Expansion, Hanseatic League - Zenith, Hanseatic League - Downfall, Hanseatic League - The End, Hanseatic League - Lists of former Hanse cities, Hanseatic League - Members of the Hanseatic League, Hanseatic League - Counting Houses, Hanseatic League - Other cities with a Hanse community, Hanseatic League - External link

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When Harald realised that he was about to die of old age (he was 150 years old), he suggested to Sigurd Ring that a great battle should be fought between them. The place was chosen to be at the moor of Bråvalla, and so the legendary Battle of Bråvalla came to be. Harald hoped to die in this battle and go to Valhalla instead of dying in his bed and end up in Niflheim. He was inherited by Sigurd Ring, the father of Ragnar Lodbrok. ...

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Harald Wartooth, Harald Wartooth - Family, Harald Wartooth - Claiming his inheritance, Harald Wartooth - The Battle of Bråvalla, Harald Wartooth - Primary sources

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A building where the blóts took place was called a hov (cf. German Hof) and there are many place names derived from this in e.g. Scania, West Götaland and East Götaland. In the process of Christianizing the landscape churches were usually built on such hovs, and excavations at the medieval churches of Mære in Trøndelag and at Old Uppsala testify to this (see Cultural continuity). There were also other sacred places called Horgr, Ve, Lund and Haug. Horgr means "cairn" or "mountain". ...

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Blót, Blót - Rites and beliefs, Blót - Dates for the blóts, Blót - Locations, Blót - Uppsala Sweden, Blót - Gotland, Blót - Lejre Denmark, Blót - Mære Norway, Blót - Elven blót, Blót - The Völse blót, Blót - Later times, Blót - Sources

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The autumn blót was performed in the middle of October, the great Midwinter blót, or Yule, at the winter solstice. The dark winter was a harsh time for the people of Scandinavia, and special means had to be undertaken to help nature pass the critical phase. Freyr was the most important god at the Midwinter and autumn blóts, and Christmas ham (the pig was for Freyr) is still the main Christmas course in Scandinavia. The Summer blót was undertaken in April and the vernal equinox and it was given to Odin. Then, they drank for victory in war and this blót was the ...

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Blót, Blót - Rites and beliefs, Blót - Dates for the blóts, Blót - Locations, Blót - Uppsala Sweden, Blót - Gotland, Blót - Lejre Denmark, Blót - Mære Norway, Blót - Elven blót, Blót - The Völse blót, Blót - Later times, Blót - Sources

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Runic alphabet - Third Reich. Runes have been used in Nazi symbolism by National Socialists and neo-Nazi groups that associate themselves with Germanic traditions, mainly the Sigel, Eihwaz, Tyr, Odal (see Odalism) and Algiz runes. The fascination that runes seem to have exerted on the Nazis can be traced to the occult and völkisch author Guido von List, one of the important figures in Germanic mysticism and runic revivalism in the late 19th and early 20th century. In 1908, List published in Das Geheimn ...

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Runic alphabet, Runic alphabet - Background, Runic alphabet - Origins, Runic alphabet - Magic and Divination, Runic alphabet - Common use, Runic alphabet - Gothic runes, Runic alphabet - Elder Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Names, Runic alphabet - Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc, Runic alphabet - Intermediary Inscriptions, Runic alphabet - Younger Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Long-branch runes, Runic alphabet - Short-twig runes, Runic alphabet - Hälsinge Runes staveless runes, Runic alphabet - Dalecarlian Runic script, Runic alphabet - Modern use, Runic alphabet - Third Reich, Runic alphabet - Neopaganism, Runic alphabet - Popular culture, Runic alphabet - Unicode, Runic alphabet - Distribution, Runic alphabet - Runiform scripts, Runic alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Runic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Runic alphabet - Modern use

Runic alphabets are assigned Unicode range 16A0–16FF. This block is intended to encode all shapes of runic letters. Each letter is encoded only once, regardless of the number of alphabets in which it occurs. The block contains 81 symbols: 75 runic letters (16A0–16EA), three punctuation marks (Runic Single Punctuation 16EB ᛫, Runic Multiple Punctuation 16EC ᛬ and Runic Cross Punctuation 16ED ᛭), and three runic symbols that are used in mediaeval calendar staves ("Golden number Runes", Runic Arlaug Symbol 16EE ᛮ, Runic Tvimadur Symbol 16EF ᛯ and Runic Belgthor Symbol 16F0 ᛰ). Characters 16F1–16FF are present ...

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Runic alphabet, Runic alphabet - Background, Runic alphabet - Origins, Runic alphabet - Magic and Divination, Runic alphabet - Common use, Runic alphabet - Gothic runes, Runic alphabet - Elder Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Names, Runic alphabet - Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc, Runic alphabet - Intermediary Inscriptions, Runic alphabet - Younger Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Long-branch runes, Runic alphabet - Short-twig runes, Runic alphabet - Hälsinge Runes staveless runes, Runic alphabet - Dalecarlian Runic script, Runic alphabet - Modern use, Runic alphabet - Third Reich, Runic alphabet - Neopaganism, Runic alphabet - Popular culture, Runic alphabet - Unicode, Runic alphabet - Distribution, Runic alphabet - Runiform scripts, Runic alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Runic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Runic alphabet - Unicode

The people of the island appear to be mentioned as early as 98 AD, by Tacitus, who called them the "Aviones". The same tribal name appears in Widsith as "Eowan", and Wulfstan later called the island "Eowland", the land of the Eowan. In Swedish history, the island long served as a royal game park. ...

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Öland, Öland - County, Öland - History, Öland - Geography, Öland - City, Öland - Hundreds, Öland - Facts, Öland - Culture, Öland - Heraldry

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Main article: Geography of Öland Oelandia was historically divided into one chartered city and five hundreds. Öland - City. Borgholm (1816) Öland - Hundreds. Algutsrum Hundred Gräsgård Hundred Möckleby Hundred Runsten Hundred Slättbo Hundred Åkerbo Hundred Öland - Facts. Highest mountain: Högsrum 55 meters Largest lake: Möckelmossen Length: 137 km W ...

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Öland, Öland - County, Öland - History, Öland - Geography, Öland - City, Öland - Hundreds, Öland - Facts, Öland - Culture, Öland - Heraldry

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The Younger Fuþark, also called Scandinavian Fuþark, is a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters. The reduction correlates with phonetic changes when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse. They are found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. They are divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions has been a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference was functional, ...

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Runic alphabet, Runic alphabet - Background, Runic alphabet - Origins, Runic alphabet - Magic and Divination, Runic alphabet - Common use, Runic alphabet - Gothic runes, Runic alphabet - Elder Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Names, Runic alphabet - Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc, Runic alphabet - Intermediary Inscriptions, Runic alphabet - Younger Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Long-branch runes, Runic alphabet - Short-twig runes, Runic alphabet - Hälsinge Runes staveless runes, Runic alphabet - Dalecarlian Runic script, Runic alphabet - Modern use, Runic alphabet - Third Reich, Runic alphabet - Neopaganism, Runic alphabet - Popular culture, Runic alphabet - Unicode, Runic alphabet - Distribution, Runic alphabet - Runiform scripts, Runic alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Runic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Runic alphabet - Younger Fuþark

In the 7th century appeared an intermediary form of runes between the Elder Futhark and the Younger Futhark, but there are very few inscriptions. Two of them are the Stentoften Runestone and the Björketorp Runestone, where the haglaz rune has evolved into having the same form as the h-rune of the younger futhark, but it is used for an a-phoneme. The k-rune, which looks like a Y is a transition form between and in the two futharks. The two futharks were in parallel use f ...

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Runic alphabet, Runic alphabet - Background, Runic alphabet - Origins, Runic alphabet - Magic and Divination, Runic alphabet - Common use, Runic alphabet - Gothic runes, Runic alphabet - Elder Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Names, Runic alphabet - Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc, Runic alphabet - Intermediary Inscriptions, Runic alphabet - Younger Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Long-branch runes, Runic alphabet - Short-twig runes, Runic alphabet - Hälsinge Runes staveless runes, Runic alphabet - Dalecarlian Runic script, Runic alphabet - Modern use, Runic alphabet - Third Reich, Runic alphabet - Neopaganism, Runic alphabet - Popular culture, Runic alphabet - Unicode, Runic alphabet - Distribution, Runic alphabet - Runiform scripts, Runic alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Runic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Runic alphabet - Intermediary Inscriptions

In later times, giants were more commonly known as trolls in Scandinavia. They can't stand the sound of church bells, and therefore must live far from civilization, in the mountains or the most remote forests. When they sometimes travel to human society, their main objective seems to be the silencing of this clamor by throwing large boulders at churches. The giants were however mainly seen as a race of the past, whose remains could still be seen in the landscape. Saxo Grammaticus attributed the raising of dolmens to the giants, and a ...

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Jotun, Jotun - Norse giants, Jotun - Origins, Jotun - Character of the giants, Jotun - Ragnarök and the fire giants, Jotun - Giants in Scandinavian folklore, Jotun - List of giants and giantesses in Norse mythology

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main article: Elder Futhark. The Elder Futhark, used for writing proto-Norse (urnordisk, urnordiska), consist of twenty-four runes, often arranged in three rows of eight. The earliest known full sequential listing of the alphabet dates from ca. 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland. ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚨ ᚱ ᚲ ᚷ ᚹ ᚺ ᚾ ᛁ ᛃ ᛇ ᛈ ᛉ ᛊ See also:

Runic alphabet, Runic alphabet - Background, Runic alphabet - Origins, Runic alphabet - Magic and Divination, Runic alphabet - Common use, Runic alphabet - Gothic runes, Runic alphabet - Elder Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Names, Runic alphabet - Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc, Runic alphabet - Intermediary Inscriptions, Runic alphabet - Younger Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Long-branch runes, Runic alphabet - Short-twig runes, Runic alphabet - Hälsinge Runes staveless runes, Runic alphabet - Dalecarlian Runic script, Runic alphabet - Modern use, Runic alphabet - Third Reich, Runic alphabet - Neopaganism, Runic alphabet - Popular culture, Runic alphabet - Unicode, Runic alphabet - Distribution, Runic alphabet - Runiform scripts, Runic alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Runic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Runic alphabet - Elder Fuþark

main article: Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. The Futhorc are an extended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later even 33 characters. It was used probably from the 5th century onward. There are competing theories as to the origins of the Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc. One theory proposes that it was developed in Frisia and later spread to England. Another holds that runes were introduced by Scandinavians to England where the fuþorc was modified and exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inherent weaknesses and a definitive answer likely awaits ...

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Runic alphabet, Runic alphabet - Background, Runic alphabet - Origins, Runic alphabet - Magic and Divination, Runic alphabet - Common use, Runic alphabet - Gothic runes, Runic alphabet - Elder Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Names, Runic alphabet - Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc, Runic alphabet - Intermediary Inscriptions, Runic alphabet - Younger Fuþark, Runic alphabet - Long-branch runes, Runic alphabet - Short-twig runes, Runic alphabet - Hälsinge Runes staveless runes, Runic alphabet - Dalecarlian Runic script, Runic alphabet - Modern use, Runic alphabet - Third Reich, Runic alphabet - Neopaganism, Runic alphabet - Popular culture, Runic alphabet - Unicode, Runic alphabet - Distribution, Runic alphabet - Runiform scripts, Runic alphabet - Special characters

Read more here: » Runic alphabet: Encyclopedia II - Runic alphabet - Frisian and Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc

Main article: Culture of Öland The Borgholm Castle was built in 1669-1681 for Queen Hedvig Eleonora, and designed by Nicodemus Tessin, senior. In its vicinity sits the Solliden Palace, summer home to the royal family. The Agricultural Landscape of southern Öland has been entered as a site of the UNESCO World heritage program. Features of this are the many windmills left standing and the special geologi ...

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Öland, Öland - County, Öland - History, Öland - Geography, Öland - City, Öland - Hundreds, Öland - Facts, Öland - Culture, Öland - Heraldry

Read more here: » Öland: Encyclopedia II - Öland - Culture

The first one to name it the Baltic Sea was Adam of Bremen and he seems to have based it on a large island, Baltia, mentioned by Xenophon and located in northern Europe. Baltic Sea - Etymology. It is possibly connected to the Germanic belt, a name used for some of the Danish straits, while others claim it to be derived from Latin balteus (belt)[1]. From this use, Baltic has been appl ...

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Baltic Sea, Baltic Sea - Name, Baltic Sea - Etymology, Baltic Sea - The name in other languages, Baltic Sea - Geophysical data, Baltic Sea - Dimensions, Baltic Sea - Icing in winter, Baltic Sea - Hydrography, Baltic Sea - Salinity, Baltic Sea - Regional emergence, Baltic Sea - Geographic data, Baltic Sea - Subdivisions, Baltic Sea - Land use, Baltic Sea - Demographics, Baltic Sea - Geologic history, Baltic Sea - Prehistory, Baltic Sea - History, Baltic Sea - Biology, Baltic Sea - Economy, Baltic Sea - Countries, Baltic Sea - Islands and Archipelagoes, Baltic Sea - Cities

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Main article: Baltic Sea countries Countries that border on the sea: Denmark Estonia Finland Germany Latvia Lithuania Poland Russia Sweden Countries that are in the drainage basin but do not border on the sea: Belarus Czech Republic Norway Slovakia Ukraine ...

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Baltic Sea, Baltic Sea - Name, Baltic Sea - Etymology, Baltic Sea - The name in other languages, Baltic Sea - Geophysical data, Baltic Sea - Dimensions, Baltic Sea - Icing in winter, Baltic Sea - Hydrography, Baltic Sea - Salinity, Baltic Sea - Regional emergence, Baltic Sea - Geographic data, Baltic Sea - Subdivisions, Baltic Sea - Land use, Baltic Sea - Demographics, Baltic Sea - Geologic history, Baltic Sea - Prehistory, Baltic Sea - History, Baltic Sea - Biology, Baltic Sea - Economy, Baltic Sea - Countries, Baltic Sea - Islands and Archipelagoes, Baltic Sea - Cities

Read more here: » Baltic Sea: Encyclopedia II - Baltic Sea - Countries

The biggest coastal cities: Saint Petersburg (Russia) 4,700,000 Riga (Latvia) 760,000 Stockholm (Sweden) 743,703 (metropolitan area 1,823,210) Helsinki (Finland) 559,716 (metropolitan area 980,000) Copenhagen (Denmark) 502,204 (metropolitan area 1,823,109) (facing the Sound) Gdańsk (Poland) 462,700 Szczecin (Poland) 413,600 Tallinn (Estonia) 401,774 Kaliningrad (Russia) 400,000 Malmö (Sweden) 259,579 (facing the Sound) Gdynia (Poland) 255 ...

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Baltic Sea, Baltic Sea - Name, Baltic Sea - Etymology, Baltic Sea - The name in other languages, Baltic Sea - Geophysical data, Baltic Sea - Dimensions, Baltic Sea - Icing in winter, Baltic Sea - Hydrography, Baltic Sea - Salinity, Baltic Sea - Regional emergence, Baltic Sea - Geographic data, Baltic Sea - Subdivisions, Baltic Sea - Land use, Baltic Sea - Demographics, Baltic Sea - Geologic history, Baltic Sea - Prehistory, Baltic Sea - History, Baltic Sea - Biology, Baltic Sea - Economy, Baltic Sea - Countries, Baltic Sea - Islands and Archipelagoes, Baltic Sea - Cities

Read more here: » Baltic Sea: Encyclopedia II - Baltic Sea - Cities