Some people in the north and west of Scotland and the Hebrides still speak Scottish Gaelic, but because of its minimal official recognition and because of large-scale emigration from those parts of Scotland, the language has been in decline. There are now believed to be approximately 1,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in Nova Scotia and 60,000 in Scotland. Its historical range was much larger. For example, it was the everyday language of most of the rest of the Highlands until little more than a century ago. Galloway had also be ...

See also:

Goidelic languages, Goidelic languages - Nomenclature, Goidelic languages - Classification, Goidelic languages - History and range, Goidelic languages - Irish, Goidelic languages - Scottish Gaelic, Goidelic languages - Manx, Goidelic languages - Other Celtic languages

Read more here: » Goidelic languages: Encyclopedia II - Goidelic languages - Scottish Gaelic

Although Irish and Manx are often referred to as Irish Gaelic and Manx Gaelic — and it is correct to describe them as Goidelic or Gaelic languages — this is unnecessary because the words Irish and Manx only ever refer to these languages whereas Scots by itself refers to a Germanic language. The word Gaelic by itself is somewhat ambiguous, but most often refers to Scottish Gaelic and it is the word that Scottish Gaelic speakers themselves use when speaking English. Furthermore, due to the peculiar politics of language and national identit ...

See also:

Goidelic languages, Goidelic languages - Nomenclature, Goidelic languages - Classification, Goidelic languages - History and range, Goidelic languages - Irish, Goidelic languages - Scottish, Goidelic languages - Manx, Goidelic languages - Other Celtic tongues, Goidelic languages - Mixed languages

Read more here: » Goidelic languages: Encyclopedia II - Goidelic languages - Nomenclature

It is not known with any certainty when speakers of a Goidelic (or q-Celtic) language reached Ireland, or how they came to be the dominant culture, or if q-celtic didn't develop entirely in Ireland from a previous dialect. Some believe Goidelic replaced some pre-existing Brythonic (or p-Celtic) language(s), but it is not known whether this represents one population displacing others, an invader becoming a new ruling caste, or simply the spread of a new lingua franca. Before and during the age of the Roman Empire there was a great deal ...

See also:

Gaels, Gaels - Mythological origin, Gaels - Historical expansion

Read more here: » Gaels: Encyclopedia II - Gaels - Historical expansion

It is not known with any certainty when speakers of a Goidelic (or q-Celtic) language reached Ireland, or how they came to be the dominant culture. Evidence suggests Goidelic replaced some pre-existing Brythonic (or p-Celtic) language(s), but it is not known whether this represents one population displacing others, an invader becoming a new ruling caste, or simply the spread of a new lingua franca. Before and during the age of the Roman Empire there was a great deal of movement, interaction and competition among the peoples referred to collectively as the Celts; Iron Age Europe can pe ...

See also:

Gaels, Gaels - Mythological origin, Gaels - Historical expansion

Read more here: » Gaels: Encyclopedia II - Gaels - Historical expansion

Uncial is a majuscule script commonly used from the 3rd to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes. From the 8th century to the 13th century the script was more often used as a display script in headings and titles. Uncial - Development. As the script evolved over the centuries, the characters became more complex. Specifically, around AD 600, flourishes and exaggerations of the basic strokes began to appear in more manuscripts. Ascenders and descenders were the first major alterations, followed by twist ...

Including:

• Uncial - Development
• Uncial - Forms
• Uncial - National styles
• Uncial - Origin of the word
• Uncial - Other uses
• Uncial - Half-uncial or semi-uncial
• Uncial - Forms

Read more here: » Uncial: Encyclopedia - Uncial

The History of Ireland is the story of a large island in the north-west of Europe and is heavily influenced by the concurrent History of Britain, its larger neighbour to the east. The first humans inhabited Ireland from around 7500 BC and were later responsible for major Neolithic sites such as Newgrange. Following the arrival of St. Patrick and other Christian missionaries in the mid-fifth century, a syncretized form of Christianity subsumed the indigenous pagan religion by A.D. 600. This led to a golden age of monastic Irish writing and ar ...

Including:

• History of Ireland - Early history: 8000 BC–AD 400
• History of Ireland - Early Christian Ireland 400–800
• History of Ireland - Early medieval era 800–1166
• History of Ireland - Later Medieval Ireland
• History of Ireland - The Coming of the Normans 1167–1185
• History of Ireland - The Lordship of Ireland 1185–1254
• History of Ireland - Gaelic Resurgence Norman Decline 1254–1360
• History of Ireland - Reformation 1536–1654 and Protestant Ascendancy 1654–1801
• History of Ireland - Re-conquest and rebellion
• History of Ireland - Civil Wars and Penal Laws
• History of Ireland - Colonial Ireland
• History of Ireland - Union with Great Britain 1801-1922
• History of Ireland - Home Rule Easter 1916 and the War of Independence
• History of Ireland - Free State/Republic 1922-present
• History of Ireland - Northern Ireland
• History of Ireland - Footnotes

Read more here: » History of Ireland: Encyclopedia - History of Ireland

The term multilingualism can refer to rather different phenomena. Sociolinguists distinguish: multilingualism at the personal level multilingualism at the societal level multilingualism at the interaction level Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the personal level. A multilingual person is, in the broadest definition of multilingualism, anyone with communicative skills in more than one language, be it active or passive. More specifically, the terms bilingual ...

Including:

• Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the personal level
• Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the societal level
• Multilingualism - Multilingual at the interactional level
• Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the linguistic level
• Multilingualism - Models for native language literacy programs
• Multilingualism - Sequential model
• Multilingualism - Bilingual model
• Multilingualism - Coordinate model
• Multilingualism - Outcomes
• Multilingualism - Examples of multilingual regions/settings
• Multilingualism - Sources

Read more here: » Multilingualism: Encyclopedia - Multilingualism

As a noun, it may refer to the group of languages (originally) spoken by the Gaels, or to any one of the individual languages. Gaelic may thus mean or refer to: Goidelic languages Scottish Gaelic language Irish language Manx language When referring to Scottish Gaelic, Gaelic is usually pronounced /gɑːlɪk/ or /gælɪk/; See also:

Gaelic, Gaelic - Languages, Gaelic - Gaelic culture and history, Gaelic - Other uses

Read more here: » Gaelic: Encyclopedia II - Gaelic - Languages

In 1800, after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British and the Irish parliaments (the latter controversially, as massive bribery was involved) enacted the Act of Union, which merged Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain (itself a union of England and Scotland, created almost 100 years earlier), to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Part of the deal for the union was that Catholic Emancipation wo ...

See also:

History of Ireland, History of Ireland - Early history: 8000 BC–AD 400, History of Ireland - Early Christian Ireland 400–800, History of Ireland - Early medieval era 800–1166, History of Ireland - Later Medieval Ireland, History of Ireland - The Coming of the Normans 1167–1185, History of Ireland - The Lordship of Ireland 1185–1254, History of Ireland - Gaelic Resurgence Norman Decline 1254–1360, History of Ireland - Reformation 1536–1654 and Protestant Ascendancy 1654–1801, History of Ireland - Re-conquest and rebellion, History of Ireland - Civil Wars and Penal Laws, History of Ireland - Colonial Ireland, History of Ireland - Union with Great Britain 1801-1922, History of Ireland - Home Rule Easter 1916 and the War of Independence, History of Ireland - Free State/Republic 1922-present, History of Ireland - Northern Ireland, History of Ireland - Footnotes

Read more here: » History of Ireland: Encyclopedia II - History of Ireland - Union with Great Britain 1801-1922

Gaelicization in Galloway and Carrick occurred at the expense of Old English and British. Old Irish can be traced in the Rhinns of Galloway from at least the fifth century. How it developed and spread is largely unknown. The Gaelicization of the land was complete probably by the eleventh century, although some have suggested a date as early as the beginning of the ninth century. The main problem is that this folk-movement is unrecorded in the historical sources, so it has to be reconstructed from things such as place-names. According to the ...

See also:

Galwegian Gaelic, Galwegian Gaelic - History and extent, Galwegian Gaelic - Culture, Galwegian Gaelic - Relationships to other languages, Galwegian Gaelic - 1500 and after, Galwegian Gaelic - Modern influence, Galwegian Gaelic - Bibliography, Galwegian Gaelic - External link

Read more here: » Galwegian Gaelic: Encyclopedia II - Galwegian Gaelic - History and extent

Indo-European copula - *h1es-. The root *h1es- was certainly already a copula in Proto-Indo-European. The e-grade (see Indo-European ablaut) is found in such forms as English is, Latin est, while the zero grade produces forms beginning with /s/, German sind or French sommes. In PIE, *h1es- was an athematic verb in -mi, that is, the first person singular was *h1esmi; this inflection survives in English am, Sanskrit asmiSee also:

Indo-European copula, Indo-European copula - General features, Indo-European copula - The Proto-Indo-European roots, Indo-European copula - *h₁es-, Indo-European copula - *b^huH-, Indo-European copula - *wes-, Indo-European copula - *h₁er-, Indo-European copula - *steh₂-, Indo-European copula - The resulting paradigms, Indo-European copula - Germanic languages, Indo-European copula - Latin and Romance languages, Indo-European copula - Balto-Slavic languages, Indo-European copula - Celtic languages

Read more here: » Indo-European copula: Encyclopedia II - Indo-European copula - The Proto-Indo-European roots

There is a distinction between social and personal bilinguism. Many countries, such as Belgium, which are officially multilingual, may have many monolinguals in their population. Offically monolingual countries, on the other hand, such as France, can have sizable multilingual populations. a majority of the population in sub-Saharan Africa is multilingual. Under its 1996 Constitution, South Africa has 11 official languages including Zulu, Xhosa, Afrikaans and English. In Kenya, educated people will typically speak a mini ...

See also:

Multilingualism, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the personal level, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the societal level, Multilingualism - Multilingual at the interactional level, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the linguistic level, Multilingualism - Models for native language literacy programs, Multilingualism - Sequential model, Multilingualism - Bilingual model, Multilingualism - Coordinate model, Multilingualism - Outcomes, Multilingualism - Examples of multilingual regions/settings, Multilingualism - Sources

Read more here: » Multilingualism: Encyclopedia II - Multilingualism - Examples of multilingual regions/settings

The Centum-Satem isogloss discusses the treatement of the three dorsal rows reconstructed for PIE, *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ (labiovelars), *k, *g, *gʰ (velars), and *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ; (palatovelars) in the daughter languages. A division into a Centum and a Satem group do ...

See also:

Centum-Satem isogloss, Centum-Satem isogloss - Proto-Indo-European dorsals, Centum-Satem isogloss - Satem, Centum-Satem isogloss - Centum, Centum-Satem isogloss - Origins of the sound change, Centum-Satem isogloss - Literature

Read more here: » Centum-Satem isogloss: Encyclopedia II - Centum-Satem isogloss - Proto-Indo-European dorsals

In general, there are some common features of uncial script: m, n, and u are relatively broad; m is formed with curved strokes (although a straight first stroke may indicate an early script), and n is written as N to distinguish it from r and s. f, i, p, s, t and relatively narrow. e is formed with a curved stroke, and its arm (or hasta) does not connect with the top curve; the height of the arm can also indicate the age of the script (written in a high position, the script is probably ear ...

See also:

Uncial, Uncial - Development, Uncial - Forms, Uncial - National styles, Uncial - Origin of the word, Uncial - Other uses, Uncial - Half-uncial or semi-uncial, Uncial - Forms

Read more here: » Uncial: Encyclopedia II - Uncial - Forms

Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as has been described by Howard Giles' Accommodation Theory. Various, but not nearly all, multilinguals tend to use code-switching, a term that describes the process of 'swapping' between languages. I ...

See also:

Multilingualism, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the personal level, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the societal level, Multilingualism - Multilingual at the interactional level, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the linguistic level, Multilingualism - Models for native language literacy programs, Multilingualism - Sequential model, Multilingualism - Bilingual model, Multilingualism - Coordinate model, Multilingualism - Outcomes, Multilingualism - Examples of multilingual regions/settings, Multilingualism - Sources

Read more here: » Multilingualism: Encyclopedia II - Multilingualism - Multilingual at the interactional level

Gaelic-speakers in medieval Galloway, whom Richard of Hexham erroneously called Picts, had a fearsome reputation. They were the barbarians par excellence of the northern English Chroniclers, said, amongst other things, to have ripped babies out of their mother's wombs. It was reported that by Walter of Guisborough in 1296, that during a raid on Hexham Priory, the Galwegians under William Wallace desecrated the shrine of St Andrew, cut off the head of the saint's statue, and threw relics into a fire. It was perhaps the wild reputation that Galwegians had in England and Lothian which gave rise to the myth of Saw ...

See also:

Galwegian Gaelic, Galwegian Gaelic - History and extent, Galwegian Gaelic - Culture, Galwegian Gaelic - Relationships to other languages, Galwegian Gaelic - 1500 and after, Galwegian Gaelic - Modern influence, Galwegian Gaelic - Bibliography, Galwegian Gaelic - External link

Read more here: » Galwegian Gaelic: Encyclopedia II - Galwegian Gaelic - Culture

An important source for the perception of Galwegian language is the poem known as The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy. The poem, written somewhere between 1504 and 1508 portrays an ideological, historical and cultural conflict between William Dunbar (representing Lothian, and Anglian Scotland) and Walter Kennedy (representing Carrick and Gaelic Scotland). Dunbar ridicules Kennedy's Heland accent and Erische language, whilst Kennedy defends it, saying calling it "all trew Scottismennis leid" and telling Dunbar "in Ingland s ...

See also:

Galwegian Gaelic, Galwegian Gaelic - History and extent, Galwegian Gaelic - Culture, Galwegian Gaelic - Relationships to other languages, Galwegian Gaelic - 1500 and after, Galwegian Gaelic - Modern influence, Galwegian Gaelic - Bibliography, Galwegian Gaelic - External link

Read more here: » Galwegian Gaelic: Encyclopedia II - Galwegian Gaelic - 1500 and after

Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact. Multilingualism has been more common in the past than usually supposed; in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's own town or village, and this holds true today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkeh ...

See also:

Multilingualism, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the personal level, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the societal level, Multilingualism - Multilingual at the interactional level, Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the linguistic level, Multilingualism - Models for native language literacy programs, Multilingualism - Sequential model, Multilingualism - Bilingual model, Multilingualism - Coordinate model, Multilingualism - Outcomes, Multilingualism - Examples of multilingual regions/settings, Multilingualism - Sources

Read more here: » Multilingualism: Encyclopedia II - Multilingualism - Multilingualism at the societal level

Indo-European copula - Germanic languages. Main article: Germanic verb Old English kept the verbs wesan and bēon separate throughout the present stem, though it is not clear that they made the kind of consistent distinction in usage that we find, for example in Spanish. In the preterite, however, the paradigms fell together. Old English has no participle for this verb. Indo-European copula - Latin and Romance languages ...

See also:

Indo-European copula, Indo-European copula - General features, Indo-European copula - The Proto-Indo-European roots, Indo-European copula - *h₁es-, Indo-European copula - *b^huH-, Indo-European copula - *wes-, Indo-European copula - *h₁er-, Indo-European copula - *steh₂-, Indo-European copula - The resulting paradigms, Indo-European copula - Germanic languages, Indo-European copula - Latin and Romance languages, Indo-European copula - Balto-Slavic languages, Indo-European copula - Celtic languages

Read more here: » Indo-European copula: Encyclopedia II - Indo-European copula - The resulting paradigms

This verb has two basic meanings. In a less marked context it is a simple copula (I'm tired; That's a shame!), a function which in non-Indo-European languages can be expressed quite differently. In a more heavily marked context it expresses existence (I think therefore I am); the dividing line between these is not always easy to draw. In addition, many Indo-European languages use this verb as an auxiliary for the formation of compound (periphrastic) tenses (I'm working; I was bitten). Other functions vary f ...

See also:

Indo-European copula, Indo-European copula - General features, Indo-European copula - The Proto-Indo-European roots, Indo-European copula - *h₁es-, Indo-European copula - *b^huH-, Indo-European copula - *wes-, Indo-European copula - *h₁er-, Indo-European copula - *steh₂-, Indo-European copula - The resulting paradigms, Indo-European copula - Germanic languages, Indo-European copula - Latin and Romance languages, Indo-European copula - Balto-Slavic languages, Indo-European copula - Celtic languages

Read more here: » Indo-European copula: Encyclopedia II - Indo-European copula - General features